1. Motor Milestones

2. Chapter 6 -
The First Two Years:
Cognitive Development

3. Jean Piaget (1896–1980)
Action = Knowledge
Knowledge is the product of direct motor behavior.
Stage approach to development – four distinct
stages: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete
operational, formal operational. These stages occur
from birth to adolescence and a combination of
physical development and relevant experience are
necessary to move from one stage to another.

4. 6.1 Basic Principles of Piaget’s
Theory
• Metaphor of child as scientist
• Children are naturally curious and create
theories about how the world works
• In assimilation, new experiences are readily
incorporated into existing theories
• In accommodation, existing theories are
modified based on experience
• Sensoritmotor intelligence—active
intelligence causing babies to think
while using senses and motor skills

5. 6.1 Basic Principles of Piaget’s
Theory
• Assimilation and accommodation are usually in
balance, or equilibrium
• When balance is upset, children reorganize their
theories to restore equilibrium, a process Piaget
called equilibration
• Process results in qualitatively different and more
advanced theories

6. Sensorimotor Stage
Substage 1: Simple
reflexes
birth to 1
month
Reflexes at the center of cognitive
life
Substage 2: First habits
and primary circular
reactions
1–4 months Coordinate separate actions into
single, integrated actions
Substage 3: Secondary
circular reactions
4–8 months Begin to act on outside world
Substage 4: Coordination
of secondary circular
reactions
8–12 months Calculated approaches; object
permanence begins
Substage 5: Tertiary
circular reactions
12–18
months
Carry out miniature experiments to
observe consequences
Substage 6: Beginnings of
thought
18–24
months
Capacity for mental representation
or symbolic thought; imagine
where objects might be that they
cannot see

7. Stages 1 and 2: Primary
Circular Reactions
• The feedback loop
involving the infants own
body; infant senses
motion and tries to
make sense of it
• Stage 1 = Reflexes
• Stage 2 = First
Acquired Adaptations
- adaptations of reflexes,
i.e., sucking—new
information taken in by
senses and responded to
Substage 1:
Simple reflexes
birth to
1
month
Reflexes at the
center of cognitive
life
Substage 2: First
habits and
primary circular
reactions
1–4
months
Coordinate separate
actions into single,
integrated actions
Substage 3:
Secondary
circular reactions
4–8
months
Begin to act on
outside world
Substage 4:
Coordination of
secondary
circular reactions
8–12
months
Calculated
approaches; object
permanence begins
Substage 5:
Tertiary circular
reactions
12–18
months
Carry out miniature
experiments to
observe
consequences
Substage 6:
Beginnings of
thought
18–24
months
Capacity for mental
representation or
symbolic thought;
imagine where
objects might be that
they cannot see

8. • Assimilation and Accommodation
– assimilation—taking in new information by
incorporating it into previous knowledge
– accommodation— intake of new data to re-adjust,
refine, expand prior schema or actions
– babies eagerly adapt their reflexes
and senses to whatever experiences they have
Stages 1 and 2: Primary Circular
Reactions, cont.

9. • Sucking as a
Stage-Two
Adaptation
– begin adapting
at about one
month
– reflexive
assimilation
Stages 1 and 2: Primary Circular
Reactions, cont.
Substage 1:
Simple reflexes
birth to
1
month
Reflexes at the
center of cognitive
life
Substage 2: First
habits and
primary circular
reactions
1–4
months
Coordinate separate
actions into single,
integrated actions
Substage 3:
Secondary
circular reactions
4–8
months
Begin to act on
outside world
Substage 4:
Coordination of
secondary
circular reactions
8–12
months
Calculated
approaches; object
permanence begins
Substage 5:
Tertiary circular
reactions
12–18
months
Carry out miniature
experiments to
observe
consequences
Substage 6:
Beginnings of
thought
18–24
months
Capacity for mental
representation or
symbolic thought;
imagine where
objects might be that
they cannot see

10. Stages 3 and 4: Secondary
Circular Reactions
• feedback loop involving
people and objects
• Stage 3 = Making
Interesting Events
Last
- repetition
- awareness
• Stage 4 = New
Adaptation and
Anticipation
- goal-directed behavior
- object permanence
Substage 1:
Simple reflexes
birth to
1
month
Reflexes at the
center of cognitive
life
Substage 2: First
habits and
primary circular
reactions
1–4
months
Coordinate separate
actions into single,
integrated actions
Substage 3:
Secondary
circular reactions
4–8
months
Begin to act on
outside world
Substage 4:
Coordination of
secondary
circular reactions
8–12
months
Calculated
approaches; object
permanence begins
Substage 5:
Tertiary circular
reactions
12–18
months
Carry out miniature
experiments to
observe
consequences
Substage 6:
Beginnings of
thought
18–24
months
Capacity for mental
representation or
symbolic thought;
imagine where
objects might be that
they cannot see

11. • Feedback loop that
involves active
experimentation and
exploration
- involves creativity,
action, and ideas
• Stage 5 = New Means
Through Active
Experimentation
– little scientist
Stages 5 and 6: Tertiary
Circular Reactions
Substage 1:
Simple reflexes
birth to
1
month
Reflexes at the
center of cognitive
life
Substage 2: First
habits and
primary circular
reactions
1–4
months
Coordinate separate
actions into single,
integrated actions
Substage 3:
Secondary
circular reactions
4–8
months
Begin to act on
outside world
Substage 4:
Coordination of
secondary
circular reactions
8–12
months
Calculated
approaches; object
permanence begins
Substage 5:
Tertiary circular
reactions
12–18
months
Carry out miniature
experiments to
observe
consequences
Substage 6:
Beginnings of
thought
18–24
months
Capacity for mental
representation or
symbolic thought;
imagine where
objects might be that
they cannot see

12. Transitions

13. Piaget Concepts
 Circular reaction – an activity that permits the
construction of positive schemes through the repetition
of a chance motor event
Primary – schemes reflecting an infant’s repetition of
interesting or enjoyable activities just for the
enjoyment of doing them
Secondary – schemes regarding repeated actions that
bring about a desirable consequence
Tertiary – schemes regarding the deliberate variation
of actions that bring desirable consequences

14. Piaget Concepts
 Goal-directed behavior – several schemes are combined
and coordinated to generate a single act to solve a
problem
 Mental representation – internal image of a past object
or event
 Deferred imitation – when a person who is no longer
present is imitated, e.g., pretending to drive when mom
even when mom is no longer driving
 Object permanence – realization that people and objects
exist even when they cannot be seen

15. Deferred imitation

16. Deferred imitation

17. Deferred imitation

19. Piaget and Modern Research
• Habituation—process of getting used to
an object or event through repeated
exposure to it
• fMRI—functional magnetic resonance
imaging measuring technique for brain
activity and neurological responses
• First three years are prime time for
cognitive development

20. Affordances
• Affordances—opportunities for
perception and interaction offered by
environment
• How something is perceived and acted
upon depends on
– past experiences
– current developmental level
– sensory awareness of opportunities
– immediate needs and motivation

22. Criticism of Piaget’s Theory
 Waves, not stages – Robert Siegler (1995) suggested
development in waves, or ebb and flow, as opposed to
stages
 Motor development may not be the only basis – Piaget
was not familiar with sensory and perceptual systems
 Object permanence may occur earlier – motor skills or
memory deficits may not allow that concept to develop
earlier
 Fixed pattern – infants may be able to imitate facial
expressions earlier than Piaget proposed

23. Information-Processing Approaches
Information is encoded, stored, and retrieved,
much like a computer.
Information-processing theory— perspective that compares
human thinking processes to computer analysis of data, including
sensory input, stored memories, and output

24. 6.2 Information Processing
• People and computers are both symbol processors
• Distinction between hardware and software
• Hardware includes sensory, working, and long-term
memory
• Software is task specific

25. Mental Hardware
6.2: Information Processing

26. Memory in Infants
 Memory, the process by which information is
initially recorded, stored, and retrieved, is
certainly in the realm of infants. Infant memory
capabilities increase with age.
 Infantile amnesia is a lack of memory for
experience that occurred before 3 years old.
 Early memories appear to be implicit. Explicit
memory emerges by the second half of the first
year.

27. Increased Working Memory
6.2: How Information Processing Changes with Development

28. • Certain amount of experience and
maturation in order to process and
remember experiences
• In first year infants have great difficulty
storing new memories
• Older children often unable to describe
events that occurred when they were
younger
Memory

29. • Very early memories possible if
– situation similar to real life
– motivation high
– special measures aid retrieval by acting as
reminders
Memory, cont.

30. Reminders and Repetition
• Reminder session—any perceptual
experience that helps a person recall an
idea or experience

31. A Little Older, A Little
More Memory
• After 6 months infants capable of
retaining information for longer periods
of time with less reminding
• Deferred imitation apparent after end
of first year
• By middle of the 2nd year, children
capable of remembering and reenacting
complex sequences

32. A Little Older, A Little More
Memory, cont.
• Memory is not just single entity; distinct
brain regions for particular aspects of
memory; humans have a memory for
– words
– images
– actions
– smells
– experiences
– “memorized” facts

33. Language and Infants
 Language is a systematic, meaningful arrangement of
symbols that provides a basis for communication.
 Phonology refers to basic sounds of language.
 Morpheme is the smallest language unit that has
meaning.
 Semantics are rules that govern meaning of words and
sentences.

34. Language and Infants
 Prelinguistic communication refers to communication through sounds,
facial expressions, gestures, imitation, and other nonlinguistic means.
 Babbling refers to making speechlike but not meaningful sounds.
 Holophrases are one-word utterances that stand for a whole phrase,
whose meaning depends on the context used.
 Telegraphic speech is speech in which words not critical to meaning
are left out.
 Underextension is the overly restrictive use of words, common among
children just mastering spoken language.
 Overextension is the overly broad use of words, overgeneralizing their
meaning.
 Referential style is a speaking style in which language is used primarily
to label objects.
 Expressive style is a speaking style in which language is primarily used
to express feelings and needs about oneself and others.

35. • Children around the world have the
same sequence of early language
development but
– timing and depth of linguistic ability
vary
The Universal Sequence of
Language Development

36. First Noises and Gestures
• Baby talk—high-pitched, simplified, and
repetitive ways adults talk to babies
• Vocalization
– crying
– cooing
• Babbling
– deaf babies do it later and less frequently,
but are more advanced in
use of gestures

37. • First word and sentences at age of
1 year
First Words

38. The Language Explosion and
Early Grammar
• Naming explosion—sudden increase in
infant vocabulary, especially nouns,
beginning at 18 months
• Holophrase—single word that expresses
a complete, meaningful thought
• Grammar—all the methods that
languages use to communicate meaning

39. Theories of Language Learning
• Even the very young use language well
• Three schools of thought
– infants are taught language
– infants teach themselves
– social impulses foster infant language

40. Learning Theory Approach
vs. Nativist Approach
 Learning theory says that language acquisition
follows the basic laws of reinforcement and
conditioning.
 Nativist approach states a genetically determined,
innate mechanism directs language development.

41. Theory 1: Infants are Taught
• Skinner’s reinforcement theory: quantity
and quality of talking to child affects
rate of language development (learned)
– parents are good instructors
– baby talk characterized by
• high pitch
• simpler vocabulary
• shorter sentence length
• more questions and commands
• repetition
Nature
Or Nurture?

42. • Chomsky and LAD (Language Acquisition
Device)—hypothesized neurological
(inborn) structure that prewires all
children for language, including basic
aspects of intonation, grammar, and
vocabulary
– infants innately ready to use their minds to
understand and speak whatever language
offered to them
– they are experience expectant
Theory 2: Infants Teach
Themselves
Nature
Or Nurture?

43. • Social-pragmatic—social reason for
language: to communicate
• Infants seek to respond, which shows their
being social in nature— and thus mutually
dependent—by
- vocalizing
- babbling
- gesturing
- listening
- pointing
Theory Three: Social Impulses
Foster Language
Nature
Or Nurture?

44. A Hybrid Theory
• Emergentist coalition—combination of
valid aspects of several theories
- cortex contains many language centers
- nature provides several paths to learning
language
Nature
Or Nurture?

45. 6.2 Core-Knowledge Theories
• Builds on Piaget’s metaphor of child as scientist
• Research traces children’s knowledge of
> naive physics (understanding objects)
> naive psychology (theory of mind)
> and naive biology (understanding unique
properties of animate objects)

46. 6.3 Understanding People
• Children use naïve psychology to predict how people
will act
• Even 1-year-olds have understanding of
intentionality
• Between ages 2 and 5, children develop a theory of
mind

47. Theory of Mind