2. OUTLINE
ď Introduction
ď Topics Appropriate to Field Research
ď The Various Roles of the Observer
ď Asking Questions
ď Gaining Access to Subjects
ď Recording Observations
ď Linking Field Observation and Other Data
ď Illustrations of Field Research
ď Strengths and Weaknesses of Field
Research
3. 3
â˘Field research encompasses two different
methods of obtaining data:
â˘Direct observation
â˘Asking questions
â˘May yield qualitative and quantitative data
â˘Often no precisely defined hypotheses to be
tested
â˘Used to make sense out of an ongoing
process
4. 4
â˘Gives comprehensive perspective â enhances
validity
â˘Go directly to phenomenon, observe it as
completely as possible
â˘Especially appropriate for topics best
understood in their natural setting
â˘Street level drug dealers to distinguish
customers
â˘Ethnography: Focuses on detailed and
accurate description rather than explanation
5. 5
â˘Complete participant: Participates fully; true
identity and purpose are not known to
subjects
â˘Participant-as-observer: Make known your
position as researcher and participate with the
group
â˘Observer-as-participant: Make known your
position as a researcher; do not actually
participate
â˘Complete observer: Observes without
becoming a participant
6. 6
â˘Qualitative Interview: Is based on a set of topics
to be discussed in depth rather than based on the
use of standardized questions
â˘Field research is often a matter of going where
the action is and simply watching and listening
â˘Also a matter of asking questions & recording
answers
â˘Field research interviews are must less
structured than survey interviews
â˘Ideally set up and conducted just like a normal,
casual conversation
7. 7
â˘Begins with initial contact: Sponsor, Letter,
Phone Call, Meeting
â˘Access to formal organizations
â˘Find a sponsor, write a letter to executive
director, arrange a phone call, arrange a
meeting
â˘Access to subcultures
â˘Find an informant (usually person who works
with criminals), use that person as your âinâ
â˘Snowball sampling is useful as informant
identifies others, who identify others, etc.
8. 8
â˘Controlled probability sampling used rarely;
purposive sampling is common
â˘Bear in mind two stages of sampling:
â˘To what extent are the situations available for
observation representative of the general
phenomena you wish to describe and explain?
â˘Are your actual observations within those
total situations representative of all
observations?
9. 9
â˘Note taking, tape recording when interviewing
and when making observations (dictation)
â˘Videotaping or photographs can make records of
âbeforeâ and âafterâ some physical design change
â˘Field notes: Observations are recorded as
written notes, often in a field journal; first take
sketchy notes and then rewrite your notes in
detail
â˘Structured observations: Observers mark
closed-ended forms, which produce numeric
measures
10. 10
â˘Useful to combine field research with surveys
or data from official records
â˘Baltimore study of the effects of
neighborhood physical characteristics on
residentsâ perceptions of crime problems
(Taylor, Shumaker, & Gottfredson, 1985)
â˘Perceptions: Surveys
â˘Physical problems: Observations, actual
population and crime information - census
data & crime reports from police records
11. 11
â˘Counted only when offense is seen; takes place
only in certain locations; crime of stealth and not
confrontation
â˘Prevalence defined as ratio of shoplifters:
shoppers
â˘Subjects selected by systematic sampling, e.g.,
every 20th shopper was followed by a field observer
â˘Other research staff were employed as shoplifters
to measure reliability of observersâ detections
â˘Could adjust prevalence rate with reliability
figures
12. 12
â˘Rate of use: # of people wearing: # of cars
observed
â˘Stationary observers at roadsides rather than
mobile
â˘Placed at controlled intersections
â˘Sampled cars on three dimensions: Time of day,
roadway type, observation site; stratified sites by
density of auto ownership (correlated with
population)
â˘Emphasized marking âUâ when uncertain
13. 13
â˘Alcohol has a disinhibiting effect which can lead to
aggression and subsequent violence
â˘Researcher set out to learn how situational
factors promote or inhibit violence in Australian
bars/nightclubs
â˘Observers in pairs stayed 2-6 hours multiple
times at 23 sites, âcomplete participantâ â
narratives written later
â˘Correlates: Violence in bars frequented by
working-class males; discomfort & boredom,
drinking patterns, management issues (cover, food
availability, bouncers)
14. 14
â˘Provides great depth of understanding
â˘Flexibility (no need to prepare much in advance)
â˘More appropriate to measure behavior than
surveys
â˘High validity; quant. measures â Incomplete
picture
â˘Low reliabilityâ Often very personal
â˘Generalizability â Personal nature may produce
findings that may not be replicated by another
â˘Precise probability samples canât normally be
drawn