slides from chapter 10 of Openstax Psychology text

1. Chapter 10 MOTIVATION AND EMOTION
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PSYCHOLOGY

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CHAPTER 10.1 AND 10.4 MOTIVATION AND EMOTION
Learning outcomes for this lecture:
• Define intrinsic and extrinsic motivation
• Understand that instincts, drive reduction, self-efficacy, and social
motives have all been
• proposed as theories of motivation
• Explain the basic concepts associated with Maslow’s hierarchy of
needs
• Explain the major theories of emotion
• Describe the role that limbic structures play in emotional processing
• Understand the ubiquitous nature of producing and recognizing
emotional expression

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FIGURE 10.1
Emotions can change in an instant, especially in response to an unexpected event. Surprise,
fear, anger, and sadness are some immediate emotions that people experienced in the
aftermath of the April 15, 2013 Boston Marathon bombing. What are emotions? What causes
them? What motivated some bystanders to immediately help others, while other people ran
for safety? (credit: modification of work by Aaron “tango” Tang)

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MOTIVATION
Motivation addresses the basic question of “Why do we do what we do?”
Motivation describes the wants or needs that direct behavior toward a
goal. In addition to biological motives, motivations can be intrinsic
(arising from internal factors) or extrinsic (arising from external factors)
Intrinsic motivations include sense of pride or accomplishment
Extrinsic motivations include money, praise, or power.
What motivated you to attend college or take this class? Motivates you to
study?

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Intrinsic motivation comes from within the individual, while extrinsic motivation comes
from outside the individual.
We are usually experience a mix of types of motivation and these may change over
time.
FIGURE 10.2

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Research suggests that when something we love to do, like icing cakes, becomes our job, our
intrinsic and extrinsic motivations to do it may change. (credit: Agustín Ruiz).
This is called the overjustification effect—intrinsic motivation is diminished when extrinsic motivation
is given. This can lead to extinguishing the intrinsic motivation and creating a dependence on
extrinsic rewards for continued performance (Deci et al., 1999).
FIGURE 10.3

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MOTIVATION
However, there will be times when intrinsic motivation stay high, such
as when we receive praise for doing a good job. In the example, as a
baker or cake decorator.
A lot has to do with the type of extrinsic motivation.
When physical reinforcement or tangible rewards such as money are
used, they tend to have a negative impact of intrinsic motivation. An
expected tangible reward also lead to a reduction in intrinsic
motivation

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MOTIVATION
In school, the sense of belonging and response in the classroom area
associated with intrinsic motivation.
Other aspects that increase intrinsic motivation include:
• A sense of control over the learning environment
• Appropriately challenging activities
• And the rationale for engaging in learning activities
This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-ND

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THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
Back in chapter 1, we were introduced to William James. He was one
of the earliest psychologists.
He investigated behaviors and what motivated them. He theorized
that behavior is driven by instincts.
The biological definition of instinct is a species-specific pattern of
behavior that is not learned.
However, James and colleagues proposed dozens of human instincts
that did not strictly meet this definitions.
The idea that human behavior is driven by instincts received criticism
as it does not take into account the various forms of learning.

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(a) William James proposed the instinct theory of motivation, asserting that behavior is
driven by instincts.
(b) In humans, instincts may include behaviors such as an infant’s rooting for a nipple
and sucking. (credit b: modification of work by “Mothering Touch”/Flickr)
FIGURE 10.4

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THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
Drive Theory was an early theory of motivation. This theory states that
deviations from homeostasis creates physiological needs.
Homeostasis is the tendency to maintain a balance within a biological
system.
These physiological needs then lead to a psychological drive that
leads to the appropriate behavior to return to homeostasis.

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Hunger and subsequent eating are the result of complex physiological processes that
maintain homeostasis. (credit “left”: modification of work by “Gracie and Viv”/Flickr; credit
“center”: modification of work by Steven Depolo; credit “right”: modification of work by Monica
Renata)
Habits forms from when have engaged in a behavior that successfully reduces a drive.
Leading us to more likely to engage in that behavior whenever faced with that drive in the
future (Graham & Weiner, 1996).
FIGURE 10.5

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The concept of optimal arousal in relation to performance on a task is depicted here.
Performance is maximized at the optimal level of arousal, and it tapers off during under-
and overarousal.
AROUSAL THEORY

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Task performance is best when arousal levels are in a middle range, with difficult tasks
best performed under lower levels of arousal and simple tasks best performed under
higher levels of arousal.
This relationship is known as Yerkes-Dodson law
AROUSAL THEORY

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SELF-EFFICACY AND SOCIAL MOTIVES
Self-efficacy is an individual’s belief in her own capability to complete a
task, which may include a previous successful completion of the exact
task or a similar task.
Bandura theorized that self-efficacy played an important role in
motivation. Our belief in our control over the consequences of our
behaviors directly influences if we will engage in challenging tasks or not.
Social motives have been proposed by numerous other researchers and
include
• Achievement
• Affiliation
• Intimacy

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Abraham Maslow suggested a hierarchy
of needs to combined several different
types of motives for our behaviors.
At the base of the pyramid are the
physiological needs for survival and
basic needs of safety and security
followed by the need to be loved and a
sense of belonging.
According to Maslow, highest levels of
needs cannot be achieved unless the
lower levels have been met.
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is illustrated
here. In some versions of the pyramid,
cognitive and aesthetic needs are also
included between esteem and self-
actualization. Others include another tier
at the top of the pyramid for self-
transcendence.
FIGURE 10.8

17. 9.4 EMOTIONS
We experience emotions
everyday and they often change
quickly.
Emotion and mood are two
separate terms on psychology.
An emotion is a subjective state
of being that is often described
by our feelings. They tend to be
subjective, affective, relatively
tense and short lived and occur
in response to an experience.
Mood refers to a prolonged, less
intense, affective state that does
not occur in response to
something we experience.
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Toddlers can cycle through emotions quickly, being (a) extremely happy one moment
and (b) extremely sad the next. (credit a: modification of work by Kerry Ceszyk; credit
b: modification of work by Kerry Ceszyk)
FIGURE 10.20

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THEORIES OF EMOTION
Our emotional states are combinations of physiological arousal,
psychological appraisal, and subjective experiences. Together, these
are known as the components of emotion.
There are three major theories of emotions that address how these
components interact in a given circumstance. These components also
explain why different people will experience different emotions under
the same circumstances. An example would be whether someone
enjoys scary movies or not.

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This figure illustrates the major assertions of the James-Lange, Cannon-Bard, and
Schachter-Singer two-factor theories of emotion. (credit “snake”: modification of work by
“tableatny”/Flickr; credit “face”: modification of work by Cory Zanker)
FIGURE 10.21

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The limbic system, which includes the hypothalamus, thalamus, amygdala, and the hippocampus, is
involved in mediating emotional response and memory.
The hypothalamus plays a role in the activation of the sympathetic nervous system that is a part of
any given emotional reaction.
The thalamus serves as a sensory relay center whose neurons project to both the amygdala and
the higher cortical regions for further processing.
The amygdala plays a role in processing emotional information and sending that information on to
cortical structures (Fossati, 2012).The hippocampus integrates emotional experience with cognition
(Femenía, Gómez-Galán, Lindskog, & Magara, 2012)
BIOLOGY OF EMOTIONS

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The anatomy of the basolateral complex and central nucleus of the amygdala are illustrated in this
diagram.
The basolateral complex has dense connections with a variety of sensory areas of the brain. It is
critical for classical conditioning and for attaching emotional value to learning processes and
memory.
The central nucleus plays a role in attention, and it has connections with the hypothalamus and
various brainstem areas to regulate the autonomic nervous and endocrine systems’ activity (Pessoa,
2010).
FIGURE 10.23

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IMPACTS OF EXPERIENCE ON EMOTIONS AND
DISORDERS
Early emotional experiences change both the amygdala and the
hippocampus. Rat pups that experienced various forms of abuse exhibited
depressive like symptoms in adolescence. These symptoms were associated
with increased amygdala activity.
Individuals with PTSD show reductions in the volume of the hippocampus.
This Photo by Unknown Author is
licensed under CC BY-ND
This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA

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FACIAL EXPRESSION AND RECOGNITION OF
EMOTIONS
There are several emotions that appear to be universal in expression
while others are dependent on culture.
A cultural display rule is one of a collection of culturally specific
standards that govern the types and frequencies of displays of
emotions that are acceptable (Malatesta & Haviland, 1982).
Some differences seen are which emotions are expressed in the
presence of other as well as which emotions should be expressed by
each gender.

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The seven universal facial expressions of emotion are shown. (credit: modification of work by
Cory Zanker)
These emotions are expressed even by congenitally blind individuals who have never seen
these emotions expressed in another person.
The facial feedback hypothesis asserts that facial expressions are capable of influencing our emotions,
meaning that smiling can make you feel happier (Buck, 1980; Soussignan, 2001; Strack, Martin, & Stepper,
1988).
FIGURE 10.24

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EMOTIONS
As we all have experienced, facial expressions are not the only way
we read someone’s emotional expressions.
Body language and tone of voice as contribute to our understanding
of emotions.
Think about trying to interpret an ambiguous text message. Tone of
voice always us to understand when someone is being serious or
sarcastic.