2. I. Introduction
⢠MRC Impairments:
1) ACI/CCI â system generated interference
2) Shadowing â large-scale path loss from LOS
obstructions
3) Multipath Fading â rapid small-scale signal variations
4) Doppler Spread â due to motion of mobile unit
⢠All can lead to significant distortion or attenuation of Rx
signal
⢠Degrade Bit Error Rate (BER) of digitally modulated signal
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3. ⢠Three techniques are used to improve Rx
signal quality and lower BER:
1) Equalization(BW > BWc )
2) Diversity
3) Channel Coding
ďCan be Used independently or together
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4. ⢠â˘Equalization compensates for ISI created by
multipath with time dispersive channels (W>BC)
⢠ďLinear equalization, nonlinear equalization
⢠â˘Diversity also compensates for fading channel
impairments, and is usually implemented by using two
or more receiving antennas
⢠ďSpatial diversity, antenna polarization diversity,
frequency diversity, time diversity
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5. â˘The
former counters the effects of time dispersion
(ISI), while the latter reduces the depth and duration
of the fades experienced by a receiver in a flat fading
(narrowband) channel
⢠Channel Coding improves mobile communication link
performance by adding redundant data bits in the
transmitted message
â˘Channel coding is used by the Rx to detect or correct
some (or all) of the errors introduced by the channel
(Post detection technique)
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6. Equalization Techniques
⢠The term equalization can be used to describe any signal
processing operation that minimizes ISI [2]
⢠Two operation modes for an adaptive equalizer: training
and tracking
â˘Three factors affect the time spanning over which an
equalizer converges: equalizer algorithm, equalizer
structure and time rate of change of the multipath radio
channel
â˘TDMA wireless systems are particularly well suited for
equalizers
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7. Equalizer is usually implemented at baseband or at IF in a
receiver (see Fig. 1)
y( t ) = x( t ) â f â( t ) + n ( t )
b
f*(t): complex conjugate of f(t)
nb(t): baseband noise at the input of the equalizer
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9. If heq(t) is impulse response of the equalizer
Ë
d ( t ) = y ( t ) â heq ( t )
= x ( t ) â f â ( t ) â heq ( t ) + mb ( t ) â heq ( t )
ďIn frequency domain above can be written as:â
= δ (t)
â´ F ( â f ) â H eq ( f ) = 1
â˘If the channel is frequency selective, the equalizer enhances the
frequency components with small amplitudes and attenuates the
strong frequencies in the received frequency response
â˘For a time-varying channel, an adaptive equalizer is needed to
track the channel variations
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10. ⢠These techniques improve mobile radio link
performance
ď§ Effectiveness of each varies widely in practical
wireless systems
ď§ Cost & complexity are also important issues
⢠Complexity in mobile vs. in base station
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11. III. Diversity Techniques
⢠Diversity : Primary goal is to reduce depth &
duration of small-scale fades
â Spatial or antenna diversity â most common
⢠Use multiple Rx antennas in mobile or base station
⢠Why would this be helpful?
⢠Even small antenna separation (â Îť ) changes phase
of signal â constructive /destructive nature is
changed
â Other diversity types â polarization, frequency,
& time
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12. ⢠Exploits random behavior of MRC
â Goal is to make use of several independent
(uncorrelated) received signal paths
â Why is this necessary?
⢠Select path with best SNR or combine
multiple paths â improve overall SNR
performance
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13. ⢠Microscopic diversity â combat small-scale
fading
â Most widely used
â Use multiple antennas separated in space
⢠At a mobile, signals are independent if separation > Ν / 2
⢠But it is not practical to have a mobile with multiple
antennas separated by Îť / 2 (7.5 cm apart at 2 GHz)
⢠Can have multiple receiving antennas at base stations, but
must be separated on the order of ten wavelengths (1 to 5
meters).
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14. â Since reflections occur near receiver, independent
signals spread out a lot before they reach the base
station.
â a typical antenna configuration for 120 degree
sectoring.
â For each sector, a transmit antenna is in the center,
with two diversity receiving antennas on each side.
â If one radio path undergoes a deep fade, another
independent path may have a strong signal.
â By having more than one path one select from, both
the instantaneous and average SNRs at the receiver
may be improved
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15. ⢠Spatial or Antenna Diversity â 4 basic types
ďą M independent branches
ďą Variable gain & phase at each branch â Gâ θ
ďą Each branch has same average SNR:
Eb
SNR = Î =
N0
Îłi
ďą Instantaneous SNR = Îł i, the pdf of
ďą
1
p (Îł i ) = e
Î
âÎł i
Î
γ i ⼠0 (6.155)
is MSNR & the probability that any branch have I SNR less
Îł
Îł
1
Pr [ γ i ⤠γ ] = ⍠p(γ i ) d γ i = ⍠e
Î
0
0
âÎł i
Î
dÎł i = 1 â e
âÎł
Î
15
16. ďą The probability that all M independent diversity branches Rx
signal which are simultaneously less than some specific SNR
threshold Îł
Pr [ Îł 1 ,...Îł M ⤠γ ] = (1 â e âÎł / Î ) M = PM (Îł )
Pr [ Îł i > Îł ] = 1 â PM (Îł ) = 1 â (1 â e âÎł / Î ) M
ďą The pdf of
Îł
:
d
M
pM (Îł ) =
PM (Îł ) = ( 1 â e âÎł
dÎł
Î
)
Î M â1
e âÎł
Î
ďą Average SNR improvement offered by selection diversity
â
â
0
0
Îł = ⍠γ pM (Îł )d Îł = Π⍠Mx ( 1 â e â x )
M â1
e â x dx, x = Îł Î
M
Îł
1
=â
Î k =1 k
16
18. ⢠Space diversity methods:
1) Selection diversity
2) Feedback diversity
3) Maximal radio combining
4) Equal gain diversity
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19. 1) Selection Diversity â simple & cheap
ď Rx selects branch with highest instantaneous SNR
⢠new selection made at a time that is the reciprocal of the
fading rate
⢠this will cause the system to stay with the current signal
until it is likely the signal has faded
ď SNR improvement :
⢠γ is new avg. SNR
⢠Π: avg. SNR in each branch
19
21. ⢠Example:
â Average SNR is 20 dB
â Acceptable SNR is 10 dB
â Assume four branch diversity
â Determine that the probability that one signal has
SNR less than 10 dB
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23. 2) Scanning Diversity
â scan each antenna until a signal is found that is above
predetermined threshold
â if signal drops below threshold â rescan
â only one Rx is required (since only receiving one signal at a
time), so less costly â still need multiple antennas
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24. 3) Maximal Ratio Diversity
â signal amplitudes are weighted according to each
SNR
â summed in-phase
â most complex of all types
â a complicated mechanism, but modern DSP makes
this more practical â especially in the base
station Rx where battery power to perform
computations is not an issue
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25. ⢠The resulting signal envelop applied to detector:
M
rM = â Gi ri
i =1
⢠Total noise power:
M
NT = N â Gi2
i =1
⢠SNR applied to detector:
ÎłM
2
rM
=
2 NT
25
27. 4) Equal Gain Diversity
â combine multiple signals into one
â G = 1, but the phase is adjusted for each received
signal so that
⢠The signal from each branch are co-phased
⢠vectors add in-phase
â better performance than selection diversity
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28. IV. Time Diversity
⢠Time Diversity â transmit repeatedly the information at
different time spacings
â Time spacing > coherence time (coherence time is the
time over which a fading signal can be considered to have
similar characteristics)
â So signals can be considered independent
â Main disadvantage is that BW efficiency is significantly
worsened â signal is transmitted more than once
⢠BW must â to obtain the same Rd (data rate)
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29. ⢠If data stream repeated twice then either
1) BW doubles for the same Rd or
2) Rd is reduced by ½ for the same BW
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30. # RAKE Receiver
ď In CDMA SS chip rate >> FF BW of channel..
ď CDMA spreading codes have low correlation betn bits
ď Propagation delays in the MRC provide multiple copies of
Tx signals delayed in time
ď Signal is only transmitted once
ď Powerful form of time diversity available in spread
spectrum (DS) systems â CDMA
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31. ď attempts to collect the time-shifted versions of the
original signal by providing a separate correlation
receiver for each of the multipath signals.
ď Each correlation receiver may be adjusted in time delay,
so that a microprocessor controller can cause different
correlation receivers to search in different time windows
for significant multipath.
ď The range of time delays that a particular correlator can
search is called a search window.
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32. ďą If time delay between multiple signals > chip period of
spreading sequence (Tc) â multipath signals can be
considered uncorrelated (independent)
o In a basic system, these delayed signals only appear as
noise, since they are delayed by more than a chip
duration. And ignored.
o Multiplying by the chip code results in noise because of
the time shift.
o But this can also be used to our advantage, by shifting the
chip sequence to receive that delayed signal separately
from the other signals.
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33. ** The RAKE Rx is a time diversity Rx that collects
time-shifted versions of the original Tx signal **
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34. ďM branches or âfingersâ = # of correlation Rxâs
ďSeparately detect the M strongest signals
ďWeighted sum computed from M branches
⢠faded signal â low weight
⢠strong signal â high weight
⢠overcomes fading of a signal in a single branch
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35. ⢠In outdoor environments
â the delay between multipath components is
usually large, the low autocorrelation properties
of a CDMA spreading sequence can assure that
multipath components will appear nearly
uncorrelated with each other.
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36. ⢠In indoor environments
â RAKE receiver in IS-95 CDMA has been found to
perform poorly
⢠since the multipath delay spreads in indoor channels
(â100 ns) are much smaller than an IS-95 chip duration
(â 800 ns).
⢠In such cases, a RAKE will not work since multipath is
unresolveable
⢠Rayleigh flat-fading typically occurs within a single chip
period.
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