Presentation from Alita Nandi Institute for Social and Economic Research (University of Essex) at Sheffield Hallam University on 22 Nov 2011 at Race, Ethnicity and Wellbeing Society Forum
1. Ethnic minority women’s poverty and
economic well being
Report for the Government Equalities Office
By Alita Nandi, ISER and Lucinda Platt, IOE
Alita Nandi
ISER, University of Essex
Sheffield Hallam University, 22nd November 2011
2. Objectives:
Discuss economic well-being of women across
different ethnic groups
Discuss differences in women’s experiences and
characteristics
Discuss the link between inequality and poverty
Discuss these issues for women living with dependant
children to understand economic well-being of children
across different ethnic groups
3. Existing research
Differences in employment by ethnic groups (Berthoud and
Blekesaune 2006)
Differences in pay by ethnic groups (Longhi and Platt 2008, Platt
2006a)
Differences in poverty rates at the household level
(Department of Work and Pensions 2009)
But no research on
Differences in women’s economic well-being
4. Data
Family Resources Survey (FRS)
– Continuous household survey
– Repeated cross-sectional survey with the financial year as reference period
– Stratified, clustered sample which is representative of UK population
living in private households
– Target annual sample size of 29,000 households
– Face-to-face interviews of non-dependant adults over 16 years of age
Households Below Average Income (HBAI)
― dataset containing variables derived from the FRS
Analysis sample:
– Pooled, 2003/04 to 2007/08
– without Northern Ireland
5. Sample
All Adults Female/ Children
(% of total) Male ratio (% of adults)
White British 196542 89.06% 1.12 58550 30%
Indian 3767 1.71% 1.05 1470 39%
Pakistani 2260 1.02% 1.05 1640 73%
Bangladeshi 706 0.32% 1.11 605 86%
Chinese 732 0.33% 1.33 207 28%
Black Caribbean 2009 0.91% 1.32 938 47%
Black African 1836 0.83% 1.28 1353 74%
Total 220679# 100.00%# 1.13 69142# 31%
Notes: Unweighted, statistics except for female-male ratio which is weighted
#This total includes persons in “mixed” and “other” categories, excluded from all analyses
6. We assigned
ethnicity of
Sample head of
household to
children
All Adults Female/ Children
(% of total) Male ratio (% of adults)
White British 196542 89.06% 1.12 58550 30%
Indian 3767 1.71% 1.05 1470 39%
Pakistani 2260 1.02% 1.05 1640 73%
Bangladeshi 706 0.32% 1.11 605 86%
Chinese 732 0.33% 1.33 207 28%
Black Caribbean 2009 0.91% 1.32 938 47%
Black African 1836 0.83% 1.28 1353 74%
Total 220679# 100.00%# 1.13 69142# 31%
Notes: Unweighted, statistics except for female-male ratio which is weighted
#This total includes persons in “mixed” and “other” categories, excluded from all analyses
7. Number of children per household
2.5
2
1.5
1
.5
0
White British Indian Pakistani Bangladeshi Chinese Black-Caribbean Black-African
8. Objectives:
Discuss economic well-being of women across
different ethnic groups
Discuss differences in women’s experiences and
characteristics
Discuss the link between inequality and poverty
Discuss these issues for women living with dependant
children to understand economic well-being of children
across different ethnic groups
9. Children live primarily in households with at
least one woman
100
Family composition of households with dependant children
80
60
40
20
0
All White British Indian Pakistani Bangladeshi Chinese Black-Caribbean Black-African
only men in HH only women in HH
both men and women in HH
10. Different income measures
Individual income: Net (of taxes) individual
income that includes tax credits received as
benefits
̵ Indicator of her personal resources and financial control
Household income: Net (of taxes) total
household income equivalised by the OECD
equivalence scale, before housing costs
― income pooling & income sharing
― Indicator of actual economic position
11. Different income measures
Material deprivation (only for families with
children): prevalence weighted deprivation
scores
̵ Good indicator of persistent poverty
̵ Not direct measures of poverty
̵ Complements income poverty measures.
12. Different methods of summarising group’s
economic well-being
Mean income: Average income
Median income: Income below which 50% of
the sample’s income lies
̵ Not sensitive to extreme values as the mean is
Within and between group income inequality:
gini coefficient, mean logarithmic deviation
̵ If incomes within the group are not similar, then these
measures summarise that information
13. Different methods of summarising group’s
economic well-being
Poverty rate: Proportion below the poverty
threshold (yearly) which is 60% of the median of
equivalised household incomes of the population
for that year
̵ Direct measure of economic disadvantage for the
group
14. Average individual and household incomes
Chinese Men Men
women
White British Chinese
Chinese Indian
High Indian White British
mean Black-African Black-African
individual Black-Caribbean Black-Caribbean
incomes Pakistani Pakistani
Bangladeshi Bangladeshi
Gain from Women Women
income Chinese Chinese
pooling Black-Caribbean Indian
Black-African White British
White British Black-African
Indian Black-Caribbean
Bangladeshi Pakistani
Pakistani Bangladeshi
0 100 200 300 400 0 100 200 300 400
Individual income (£) Household equivalent income (£)
15. Average individual and household incomes
Black Men Men
Caribbean
White British Chinese
& Black Chinese Indian
African Indian White British
women Black-African Black-African
Black-Caribbean Black-Caribbean
High Pakistani Pakistani
mean Bangladeshi Bangladeshi
individual Women Women
incomes Chinese Chinese
Black-Caribbean Indian
Hardly Black-African White British
gain from White British Black-African
Indian Black-Caribbean
income
Bangladeshi Pakistani
pooling Pakistani Bangladeshi
0 100 200 300 400 0 100 200 300 400
Individual income (£) Household equivalent income (£)
16. Average individual and household incomes
White Men Men
British &
White British Chinese
Indian Chinese Indian
women Indian White British
Black-African Black-African
Low mean Black-Caribbean Black-Caribbean
individual Pakistani Pakistani
incomes Bangladeshi Bangladeshi
Women Women
Gain from Chinese Chinese
income Black-Caribbean Indian
pooling Black-African White British
White British Black-African
Indian Black-Caribbean
Bangladeshi Pakistani
Pakistani Bangladeshi
0 100 200 300 400 0 100 200 300 400
Individual income (£) Household equivalent income (£)
17. Average individual and household incomes
Banglades Men Men
hi and
White British Chinese
Pakistani Chinese Indian
women Indian White British
Black-African Black-African
Low mean Black-Caribbean Black-Caribbean
individual Pakistani Pakistani
incomes Bangladeshi Bangladeshi
Women Women
Gain from Chinese Chinese
income Black-Caribbean Indian
pooling Black-African White British
BUT… White British Black-African
Indian Black-Caribbean
Bangladeshi Pakistani
Pakistani Bangladeshi
0 100 200 300 400 0 100 200 300 400
Individual income (£) Household equivalent income (£)
18. Average individual and household incomes:
for men & women with dependant children
BC & BA
Men Men
High Chinese Chinese
White British White British
mean Indian Indian
individual Black-Caribbean Black-Caribbean
incomes Black-African Black-African
Pakistani Pakistani
Lose from Bangladeshi Bangladeshi
income Women Women
pooling Black-Caribbean Chinese
Chinese White British
Black-African Indian
White British Black-Caribbean
Indian Black-African
Bangladeshi Pakistani
Pakistani Bangladeshi
0 100 200 300 400 0 100 200 300 400
Individual income (£) Household equivalent income (£)
19. Gains from income pooling and income sharing
Comparing women’s individual and household incomes:
Black Caribbean and Black African women
– high mean individual incomes
– hardly gain from income pooling
– Women with dependent children LOSE from pooling
Chinese women:
– high average individual incomes
– gain from income pooling
White British and Indian women:
– low average individual incomes
– gain from income pooling
Bangladeshi & Pakistani women:
– low average individual incomes
– gain from income pooling BUT…
20. Ethnic composition of spouse/partners
All
White British
Indian
Pakistani
Bangladeshi
Chinese
Black-Caribbean
Black-African
0 .2 .4 .6 .8 1
Proportion of women in couples
Partner of same ethnic group White British partner
21. Family composition of women by ethnic groups
White British
Indian
Pakistani
Bangladeshi
Chinese
Black-Caribbean
Black-African
0 20 40 60 80 100
Percent (%)
single, no children single, with children
one or more adults, no children one or more adults, and children
22. Family composition of women with dependent
children by ethnic groups
White British
Indian
Pakistani
Bangladeshi
Chinese
Black-Caribbean
Black-African
0 20 40 60 80 100
Percent (%)
single, with children
one or more adults, and children
23. Number of children per household
2.5
2
1.5
1
.5
0
White British Indian Pakistani Bangladeshi Chinese Black-Caribbean Black-African
24. Individual incomes of men and women
Men Men
Net
income
White British Chinese
Chinese Indian
gap
Indian White British
Black-African
White British
Black-African
36.7
Black-Caribbean Chinese
Black-Caribbean 24.9
Pakistani Pakistani
Bangladeshi
Indian
Bangladeshi
43.8
Women Black African Women 27.0
Chinese Black Caribbean
Chinese 24.9
Black-Caribbean Indian
Black-African
Pakistani
White British
62.0
White British Bangladeshi
Black-African 63.6
Indian Black-Caribbean
Bangladeshi Men on an average have higher individual
Pakistani
Pakistani
incomes than women in the same ethnic
Bangladeshi
0 100 200 300 400 groups 0 100 200 300 400
Individual income (£) Household equivalent income (£)
25. Women with dependent children
Men and women with children have higher individual incomes
(except Bangladeshi and Pakistani women)
But lower household incomes on average than those without
(except Chinese women).
Women with children are more likely to be poor than women
without children.
They are more likely to be younger
26. Median individual and household incomes
Median Men Men
incomes are
White British Chinese
lower than Indian White British
mean incomes Chinese Indian
for all groups Black-African Black-Caribbean
suggesting Black-Caribbean Black-African
income higher Bangladeshi Pakistani
proportion Pakistani Bangladeshi
with low Women Women
incomes Black-Caribbean Chinese
Black-African White British
Chinese Indian
White British Black-Caribbean
Indian Black-African
Bangladeshi Pakistani
Pakistani Bangladeshi
0 100 200 300 0 100 200 300
Individual income (£) Household equivalent income (£)
27. Median individual and household incomes
Rank of Men Men
Chinese
White British Chinese
women w.r.t. Indian White British
median Chinese Indian
individual Black-African Black-Caribbean
income Black-Caribbean Black-African
is lower Bangladeshi Pakistani
Pakistani Bangladeshi
Women Women
Black-Caribbean Chinese
Black-African White British
Chinese Indian
White British Black-Caribbean
Indian Black-African
Bangladeshi Pakistani
Pakistani Bangladeshi
0 100 200 300 0 100 200 300
Individual income (£) Household equivalent income (£)
28. Women’s individual income by ethnic groups
.004
.004
White British White British White British
.004
Indian Pakistani Bangladeshi
.003
.003
.003
.002
.002
.002
.001
.001
.001
0
0
0
0 400 800 1200 0 400 800 1200 0 400 800 1200
£ per week £ per week £ per week
.004
.004
.004
White British White British White British
Chinese Black Caribbean Black African
.003
.003
.003
.002
.002
.002
.001
.001
.001
0
0
0
0 400 800 1200 0 400 800 1200 0 400 800 1200
£ per week £ per week £ per week
29. Percent (%)
Men:
White
British
87.2%
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
W 0
hi
te
Br
it is
h
In
di
an
Pa
ki
st
Ba a ni
ng
l
All women
ad
es
hi
C
Bl hi
ac ne
k- se
C
ar
ib
b ea
Bl
ac n
k- Percent (%)
Af
ric
an
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
W 0
hi
te
Br
it is
h
In
di
an
Pa
ki
st
Ba a ni
ng
l ad
es
hi
C
Bl hi
ac ne
k- se
C
ar
ib
b ea
Bl n
ac
k-
Women with dependant children
Af
ric
an
Proportion of women employed, by ethnic group
White British Men: 66.6%
30. Percent (%)
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
W 0
hi
te
Br
it is
h
In
di
an
ethnic group
P
ak
is
ta
B ni
an
gl
All women
ad
es
hi
C
B hi
la ne
c k- se
C
ar
ib
b
B ea
la n
c k-
A Percent (%)
fri
ca
n
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
W 0
hi
te
Br
it is
h
In
di
an
P
ak
is
ta
B ni
an
gl
ad
es
hi
C
B hi
la ne
c k- se
C
ar
ib
b
B ea
la n
c k-
Women with dependant children
A
fri
ca
n
Proportion of 25-64 year old women employed, by
31. Women’s household income by ethnic groups
.004
White British White British White British
Indian Pakistani Bangladeshi
.003
.001 .002 .003 .004
.001 .002 .003 .004
.002
.001
0
0
0
0 400 800 1200 0 400 800 1200 0 400 800 1200
£ per week £ per week £ per week
.004
.004
.004
White British White British White British
Chinese Black Caribbean Black African
.003
.003
.003
.002
.002
.002
.001
.001
.001
0
0
0
0 400 800 1200 0 400 800 1200 0 400 800 1200
£ per week £ per week £ per week
32. Individual income inequalities within ethnic groups
Mean logarithmic deviation
Men and women Women living
All men and living with with dependant
women All women dependant children children
White British 0.42 0.39 0.44 0.35
Indian 0.73 0.82 High 0.71
0.72
individual
Pakistani 0.88 0.99 0.79 0.79
income
Bangladeshi 0.77 0.80 0.71 inequalities 0.67
Chinese 0.78 0.87 0.88 driven by 1.05
zero
Black Caribbean 0.44 0.39 0.48 0.28
incomes
Black African 0.64 0.61 0.62 0.65
33. Household income inequalities within ethnic groups
Mean logarithmic deviation
Household
Men and women income
All men and living with inequalities
women dependant children lower than
White British 0.22 0.33 individual
income
Indian 0.30 0.37 inequalities.
Pakistani 0.26 0.33
Bangladeshi 0.18 0.30
Chinese 0.45 0.41
Black Caribbean 0.23 0.32
Black African 0.28 0.35
34. Individual Income gaps for women of different
ethnic groups vis-à-vis White British Men
White British women
Indian women
Pakistani women
Bangladeshi women
Chinese women
Black Caribbean women
Black African women
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Individual Income Gap (%)
Women
vis-a-vis all White British Men
95% confidence interval Mean gap
35. Individual Income gaps for women of different
ethnic groups vis-à-vis White British Men
White British women
Indian women
Pakistani women All income
gaps are
Bangladeshi women negative and
significantly
Chinese women different
from zero
Black Caribbean women
Black African women
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Individual Income Gap (%)
Women
vis-a-vis all White British Men
95% confidence interval Mean gap
36. Individual Income gaps for women of different
ethnic groups vis-à-vis White British Men
White British women
Indian women
Pakistani women Pay gaps are
16-17% for
Bangladeshi women women with
full time
Chinese women employment
Source: Longhi
Black Caribbean women and Platt 2008
Black African women
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Individual Income Gap (%)
Women
vis-a-vis all White British Men
95% confidence interval Mean gap
37. Income gaps and pay gaps for women of different
ethnic groups vis-à-vis White British Men
Rank by pay gaps# Rank by income gaps
Chinese 1 1
Black Caribbean 2 1
Indian 3 5
White British 4 4
Bangladeshi 5 6
Black African 6 3
Pakistani 7 7
#Source: Longhi and Platt 2008 using the Labour Force Survey
38. Household Income and % Poor
% poor
0 10 20 30 40 50
Black African W
Black Caribbean W
Chinese W
Bangladeshi W
Pakistani W
Indian W
White British W
White British M
0 100 200 300
Mean income (£ pw)
Household Income % poor
39. Household Income and % Poor
% poor
0 10 20 30 40 50
Black African W
Black Caribbean W
Chinese W
Bangladeshi W
Pakistani W
Indian W
White British W
White British M
0 100 200 300
Mean income (£ pw)
Household Income % poor
40. Household Income and % Poor
% poor
0 10 20 30 40 50
Black African W
Black Caribbean W
Chinese W
Bangladeshi W
Pakistani W
Indian W
White British W
White British M
0 100 200 300
Mean income (£ pw)
Household Income % poor
41. Poverty Rates
All adults Women Men Women Men Children
With dependant
Children
White British 15.5 16.7 14.1 17.4 13.3 19.4
Indian 21.9 23.0 20.8 26.0 24.3 27.4
Pakistani 45.9 46.0 45.7 49.8 49.3 54.6
Bangladeshi 50.1 51.9 48.2 57.7 54.6 64.2
Chinese 20.5 20.6 20.5 24.7 20.6 31.3
Black-Caribbean 22.2 23.5 20.7 24.6 23.0 25.6
Black-African 23.9 22.7 25.1 28.8 27.3 34.7
Source: Family Resources Survey and Households Below Average Income 2003/4-2007/8
Child poverty rates are higher
than that of women or men in
the same ethnic group
42. Poverty Rates
All adults Women Men Women Men Children
With dependant
Children
White British 15.5 16.7 14.1 17.4 13.3 19.4
Indian 21.9 23.0 20.8 26.0 24.3 27.4
Pakistani 45.9 46.0 45.7 49.8 49.3 54.6
Bangladeshi 50.1 51.9 48.2 57.7 54.6 64.2
Chinese 20.5 20.6 20.5 24.7 20.6 31.3
Black-Caribbean 22.2 23.5 20.7 24.6 23.0 25.6
Black-African 23.9 22.7 25.1 28.8 27.3 34.7
Source: Family Resources Survey and Households Below Average Income 2003/4-2007/8
43. Poverty Rates
All adults Women Men Women Men Children
With dependant
Children
White British 15.5 16.7 14.1 17.4 13.3 19.4
Indian 21.9 23.0 20.8 26.0 24.3 27.4
Pakistani 45.9 46.0 45.7 49.8 49.3 54.6
Bangladeshi 50.1 51.9 48.2 57.7 54.6 64.2
Chinese 20.5 20.6 20.5 24.7 20.6 31.3
Black-Caribbean 22.2 23.5 20.7 24.6 23.0 25.6
Black-African 23.9 22.7 < 25.1 28.8 27.3 34.7
Source: Family Resources Survey and Households Below Average Income 2003/4-2007/8
Women’s poverty rates are
almost always higher than that
of men the same ethnic group
44. Individual income composition
Women
White British
Indian
Pakistani
Bangladeshi
Chinese
Black-Caribbean
Black-African
0 20 40 60 80 100
Percent share
Earnings Self-employment Pension income
Benefits Tax credits as benefits Other income
45. Age composition of all women by ethnic groups
Overall White British
women in all
non-white Indian
groups are Pakistani
more likely to
Bangladeshi
be younger.
More than Chinese
75% of EM
Black-Caribbean
women are 54
years or less Black-African
while only
59% of white 0 20 40 60 80 100
women are 55 Percent (%)
or less 16-24 25-34 35-44 45-54
55-64 65-74 75+
46. Age composition of women with dependent children by
ethnic groups
As expected
White British
women with
dependent Indian
children are Pakistani
relatively
younger: Bangladeshi
around 80% Chinese
are 44 years
or less Black-Caribbean
Black-African
0 20 40 60 80 100
Percent (%)
16-24 25-34 35-44 45-54
55-64 65-74 75+
47. Age-income profiles
Very little variation in income gaps between ethnic
groups for different age groups
Except at very young or very old ages
Individual Income (£ per week) Equivalent Household Income (£ per week)
100 150 200 250 300 350
100 150 200 250 300 350
50
50
16-24 25-34 35-44 45-54 55-64 65-74 75+ 16-24 25-34 35-44 45-54 55-64 65-74 75+
age in years age in years
White British Pakistani Bangladeshi
48. Women’s income composition
Individual Income
Earnings
– important source for all, 50-60%
– except for Bangladeshi & Pakistani women, 30-40% & 25-30%
for women with dependent children
Non-pension benefits and tax credits
– Important for Bangladeshi & Pakistani women, 45-50%
– More so for Bangladeshi and Pakistani women with dependant
children, 10% higher
– Relatively important for Caribbean and Black African women,
20-25%
49. Women’s income composition
Individual Income
Pension
– Important for White British women, 20%
Other income and self-employment income
– Important source for Chinese women
Household Income
Labour income more important, and
Non-pension benefits & tax credits less important
50. Contribution of different income sources to
income inequality
Labour income
– most important contributing factor, more so for
men
– Self-employment disproportionately higher
– More so for women with dependent children, less so
for men with dependent children
Non-pension benefit income & tax credits
– reduces income inequality a little, 2%
51. Material deprivation scores
21 questions of the following type, where 11 are about adults or
family circumstances and 10 only about children
Do you [and your family/and your partner] have a holiday away
from home for at least one week a year, whilst not staying with
relatives at their home?
― We/I have this
― We/I would like to have this but cannot afford this at the moment
― We/I do not want / need this at the moment
― [Does not apply]
Total deprivation score is a prevalence weighted sum of individual
item scores (1 if cannot afford, 0 otherwise). Note only available for families
with children.
52. Material deprivation items: 11 adult items
Do you
have a holiday away from home for at least one week a year, whilst not staying with
relatives at their home?
have friends or family around for a drink or meal at least once a month?
have two pairs of all weather shoes for [Name of all adults in Benefitunit]?
have enough money to keep your home in a decent state of decoration?
have household contents insurance?
make regular savings of £10 a month or more for rainy days or retirement?
replace any worn out furniture?
replace or repair major electrical goods such as a refrigerator or a washing machine,
when broken?
have a small amount of money to spend each week on yourself (not on your family)?
have a hobby or leisure activity?
in winter, are you able to keep this accommodation warm enough?
53. Material deprivation items: 10 children items
Does your child have do your children have
a family holiday away from home for at least one week a year?
leisure equipment such as sports equipment or a bicycle?
celebrations on special occasions such as birthdays, Christmas or other religious
festivals?
an outdoor space or facilities nearby where they can play safely?
Does your child/do your children
go swimming at least once a month?
do a hobby or leisure activity?
have friends around for tea or a snack once a fortnight?
go to toddler group / nursery / playgroup at least once a week.?
go on school trips?
Are there enough bedrooms for every child of 10 or over of a different sex to have
their own bedroom?
54. Distribution of deprivation scores of women with
children by ethnic groups
White British Indian Pakistani
.6
Higher
.4
proportion
with low
.2
deprivation
0
Bangladeshi Chinese Black Caribbean
scores:
.6
White
.4
British,
Indian and
.2
Chinese
0
women 0 50 100
Black African Total
.6
.4
.2
0
0 50 100 0 50 100
Deprivation score
55. Distribution of deprivation scores of women with
children by ethnic groups
White British Indian Pakistani
.6
Higher
.4
proportion
with high
.2
deprivation
0
Bangladeshi Chinese Black Caribbean
scores:
.6
Bangladeshi,
.4
Black
African,
.2
Pakistani
0
and Black 0 50 100
Black African Total
Caribbean
.6
women. Highest deprivation scores for
.4
Bangladeshi and Black African
.2
women
0
0 50 100 0 50 100
Deprivation score
56. Distribution of deprivation scores of children by
ethnic groups
White British Indian Pakistani
Same picture
.5
as for
women.
Bangladeshi
0
Bangladeshi Chinese Black Caribbean
and Black
.5
African
children
have highest
0
deprivation Black African Total
0 50 100
scores Nearly half of Bangladeshi
.5
children have incomes < 70% of
Median
AND deprivation scores >25
0
0 50 100 0 50 100
Deprivation score
Compared to 16-17% of all
children
57. Distribution of child poverty indicator by ethnic
groups Child poverty indicator: Family deprivation
score>25 & household income <70% of median
Children Women Men
Living with children
Bangladeshi 48.8% 40.4% 39.2%
Pakistani 39.1% 30.9% 29.5%
Black African 33.5% 29.3% 20.2% 16-17% of
all
Black Caribbean 21.0% 20.4% 15.2%
children
White British 14.5% 12.9% 7.1% fall into
Indian 13.4% 11.9% 10.1% this
category
Chinese 8.3% 10.1% 6.5% (DWP
2009)
58. Deprivation scores by poverty status
Not poor Poor
Black African Black African
Black Caribbean Black Caribbean
Chinese Chinese
Bangladeshi Bangladeshi
Pakistani Pakistani
Indian Indian
White British White British
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Deprivation Score Deprivation Score
Men Women Men Women
59. Link between income inequality of women and poverty
How would poverty rates change if group income inequalities were
eliminated?
Simulate women’s individual and household incomes to
eliminate within and between group income inequalities
Assign to all women the mean income of women in her
ethnic group
Assign age-adjusted mean income of White British
women to all women
Do not change men’s incomes
Re-calculate household incomes and the new poverty
lines and poverty status
60. Women’s new simulated poverty rates
100
80
60
40
20
0
All Indian Bangladeshi Black Caribbean
White British Pakistani Chinese Black African
Ethnic group
New poverty rates using new poverty line after equialisation of
Within group household income Within group individual income
Between group household income Between group individual income
Original Poverty Rate
61. Men’s new simulated poverty rates
100
80
60
40
20
0
All Indian Bangladeshi Black Caribbean
White British Pakistani Chinese Black African
Ethnic group
New poverty rates using new poverty line after equialisation of
Within group household income Within group individual income
Between group household income Between group individual income
Original Poverty Rate
62. Eliminating Eliminating Eliminating Eliminating
within group within group between group between group
household individual household individual
income income income income
inequality inequality inequality inequality
All men and women
Move out of poverty 14% 10% 14% 10%
Move into poverty 1% 4% 1% 5%
Remain in poverty 2% 6% 2% 7%
Remain out of poverty 83% 80% 82% 79%
Women
Move out of poverty 17% 13% 18% 12%
Move into poverty 0% 5% 0% 7%
Remain in poverty 0% 5% 0% 6%
Remain out of poverty 82% 77% 82% 75%
Men
Move out of poverty 11% 8% 11% 8%
Move into poverty 2% 2% 2% 2%
Remain in poverty 5% 8% 4% 7%
Remain out of poverty 83% 82% 82% 83%
63. Eliminating Eliminating Eliminating Eliminating
within group within group between group between group
household individual household individual
income income income income
inequality inequality inequality inequality
All men and women with
dependant children
Move out of poverty 17% 7% 18% 10%
Move into poverty 1% 10% 0% 6%
Remain in poverty 1% 10% 0% 8%
Remain out of poverty 82% 72% 82% 76%
Women with dependant
children
Move out of poverty 19% 8% 19% 10%
Move into poverty 0% 14% 0% 8%
Remain in poverty 1% 12% 0% 9%
Remain out of poverty 80% 66% 81% 72%
Children
Move out of poverty 19% 8% 20% 10%
Move into poverty 1% 11% 0% 7%
Remain in poverty 1% 13% 0% 10%
Remain out of poverty 79% 69% 79% 72%
64. To conclude
Diversity of women’s income within and
between ethnic groups
But a substantial proportion of women are poor
across different ethnic groups to varying degree
Women’s poverty is very closely related to
poverty of children as most children live with at
least one woman guardian
65. To conclude
Poverty is determined not just by women’s
wages, or even their total income
Who they live with matters: income pooling
(sharing rule) and family size
Different patterns of women’s own income and
income pooling across groups
We need to measure economic well-being
directly
66. To conclude
Bangladeshi & Pakistani women: low own
income, low income of spouses
Black Caribbean and African women: high own
income, relatively lower income of
spouses/partner, single mothers
Indian and Chinese women: gain from income
pooling on average, but high within group
income inequality
