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THYROID MALIGNANCIES
1. THYROID
MALIGNANCIES
+ LT COL VIPIN V NAIR
+ ASSO PROF AND PLASTIC SURGEON
+ AFMC PUNE
THYROID
MALIGNANCIES
Dr VIPIN V NAIR
ASSO PROF SURGERY AND PLASTIC SURGEON
AFMC PUNE
4. Differentiated
carcinomas peak in 3rd
and 4th decade.
Medullary Ca thyroid
peaks in 5th and 6th
decade.
Anaplastic carcinomas
peak in 7th decade.
6. EPIDEMIOLOGY
Indian population - thyroid cancer forms 1.5%
of all malignant tumours
Papillary thyroid carcinoma: Iodine sufficient
areas
Follicular thyroid carcinoma: Iodine deficient
areas
11. AGE RELATED PREVALENCE
Carcinoma Age group
a) Papillary Thyroid carcinoma
b) Medullary thyroid carcinoma associated with
MEN type 2
Children
a) Follicular thyroid carcinoma
b) Anaplastic carcinoma
c) Sporadic Medullary thyroid carcinoma
Elderly
12. THYROID CANCERS IN YOUNG AGE
Papillary carcinoma: most common
Radiation related
More chances of multifocality
More aggressive ??
Extra-thyroid extension: more likely
60%-80%: lymph node metastasis
Lung metastasis(10%)
Recurrence risk: 10% to 35%
Mortality rate: 3 to 5 %
13. ETIOLOGY
Thyroid lymphomas: Intra-thyroid lymphoid tissue
Sarcomas: Connective tissue of thyroid gland
Endodermally derived
Follicular cells
• Papillary
• Follicular
• Anaplastic
Neuroendocrine derived
calcitonin producing C cells
• Medullary
Thyroid cancers arise from 2 types of cells
14. 1) Radiation Exposure
Papillary Carcinoma
Differentiated carcinoma – Irradiation under 5 years of age
Prior neck irradiation early in life
Treatment for acne, tonsillitis (200-150 cGy)
Treatment for malignancies: Hodgkin’s (4000 cGy)
Nuclear holocausts/ accidents
Chernobyl incident (Ukraine 1986): 100 times increase
Long latency period: 20 to 30 yrs
15. 2) Pre-existing
Thyroid Lesions
Pre-existing MNG: Follicular carcinoma
SNT (esp. old age, males and in extremes of
age)
Hashimoto’s thyroiditis: Papillary thyroid
carcinoma
Any solitary nodule ~ 5% chances of
malignancy
Solitary nodules with definite h/o radiation
exposure: 30 % chances of malignancy
16. FAMILIAL CANCER SYNDROMES
• Medullary carcinoma: Multiple
endocrine neoplasia (MEN) 2A or
2B syndrome, as well as familial
MTC (FMTC) syndrome
4-10 times increased risk in 1st degree relatives
SYNDROMES
THYROID CANCERS
Cowden’s syndrome FTC and rarely PTC and
Hurthle cell tumors
FAP PTC
Werner’s syndrome PTC, FTC, Anaplastic Cancer
Carney complex type 1 PTC, FTC
McCune Albright
syndrome
PTC Clear cell
19. Presentation s/o malignancy –
Recent onset pain
Recent rapid enlargement in a long
standing nodule
Dysphagia
Stridor
Hemoptysis
Hoarseness
20.
21. WORKUP
H/o risk factors (radiation, family history)
Examination findings
Firmness (hard, gritty usually s/o
malignancy)
Mobility/ adherence to surrounding
structures
Presence of LNpathy
Berry’s sign
IDL for vocal cord assessment
USG Neck followed by FNAC
22. LABORATORY
INVESTIGATIONS
Serum TSH levels
Low TSH - autonomously functioning nodule
(usually benign)
Does not rule out malignancy (1% risk)
Serum calcitonin levels (MTC or MEN 2)
Highly suggestive of MTC if raised
PCR assays for germline mutations in the RET proto-
oncogene
Diagnostic in Familial MTC
Serum CEA level
Increased in MTC but nonspecific
Better indicator of prognosis than Calcitonin
23. IMAGING STUDIES
ULTRASONOGRAPHY
Highly sensitive for
thyroid nodules
Can detect sub-
clinical/small nodules
Differentiate solid from
cystic
Detect sub-clinical
cervical
lymphadenopathy
25. BETHESDA CRITERIA
Accuracy of FNAC: 70 – 97 %
False Negatives: 1 – 6 %
Chances of malignancy in:
i. FLUS – 10 – 35 %
ii. AUS – 60 – 75 %
Suspicious for malignancy : 60 %
turn out to be malignant
Malignant : 97 % are malignant
Despite negative aspirate
thyroidectomy indicated if
large, hard nodule fixed to
surrounding structures
FROZEN SECTION
Lobectomy ???
26. RADIO IODINE STUDIES
Recommended in patients having
Follicular neoplasm on FN and
suppressed TSH
Determine functional status of a nodule
Based on radioisotope studies nodule
can be
Hot - Autonomous toxic nodule
Warm - Normally functioning
Cold - Non functioning nodule (likely
malignant but not always)
27.
28.
29.
30. Thyroid scintigraphy Indium-111 octreotide scan for MTC
X-rays : CXR and X-ray skull to rule out metastatic deposits
COLD NODULE
THYROID SCANS
37. CHARACTERISTIC
FEATURES
60%-80% of all thyroid malignancies
Found in iodine-sufficient areas
Predominant in children and radiation exposed cases
Females : Males = 2:1 (most euthyroid)
Mean age at presentation 30-40 yrs
Lymphatic spread commoner (mode of presentation in
many)
Distant mets: upto 20 % cases (lungs > bone > liver > brain)
Lateral aberrant thyroid: metastatic spread to cervical LN
Multifocality common (upto 85%)
38. DIAGNOSIS
AND PRE-OP
WORK UP
ORPHAN ANNIE NUCLEI: intra-nuclear cytoplasmic
inclusions
Papillary projections: characteristic
Mixed pattern/ follicular pattern (follicular variant)
Follicular variant: behave biologically like papillary
Psammoma bodies
BRAF mutations
39. DIAGNOSIS AND PRE-OP WORK UP
Basis of diagnosis: FNAC of thyroid mass/ LN mass
Complete USG Neck:
Contralateral lobe
LN stations
If suspected clinically: metastatic workup
Prognostic scores
40. PROGNOSTIC MARKERS
LN involvement does not alter the
prognosis/survival rates
Predicts local recurrence All scoring systems categorize the
patient as
High risk
Low risk
41. SURGICAL MANAGEMENT
CURRENT GUIDELINES: Near- total or total thyroidectomy for primary cancers >1 cm
(Unless surgery is contraindicated)
Reduced recurrence rates
Improved survival rates
MRND type III: in case of proven lateral lymph node involvement
No role of prophylactic lateral neck node dissection, micro-mets can be addressed by
RAI therapy
43. SURGICAL MANAGEMENT
Hemithyroidectomy is considered sufficient in cases of:
Small tumours (<1 cm)
Incidentally discovered/ low-risk/ unifocal/ intrathyroidal papillary ca
Absence of prior head and neck irradiation
Absence of radiologically/clinically involved cervical LN mets
FNAC suspicious for papillary Ca: Hemithyroidectomy + removal of adjacent nodes
If frozen-section of lymph node or tumor confirms carcinoma:
Completion total or near-total thyroidectomy is performed
Completion thyroidectomy can be performed at a later setting based on HPE
44. SURGICAL MANAGEMENT
Large/ Locally aggressive/ Metastatic tumours
Total thyroidectomy + excision of adjacent involved structures + appropriate nodal
surgery
Followed by radio-ablation
Along with long term TSH suppression
46. MICROPAPILLARY OR OCCULT MICRO CA
“Micropapillary carcinoma is a tumour, clinically not detectable or less than 1cm with no
evidence of local invasion through the thyroid capsule or angioinvasion”
Size criterion < 1.0 cm
Usually clinically silent, more indolent than macro type
Most are found incidentally at HPE/ autopsy
25 % associated with occult LN mets
48. FOLLICULAR VARIANT
Lindsay tumor
Psammoma bodies and sclerosis may be present
Diagnosis rests on identification of the typical nuclear features of papillary carcinoma
Further divided into two subtypes:
Infiltrative (non-encapsulated)
Encapsulated
50. Follicular Carcinoma vs Follicular Adenoma
Unequivocal vascular and/or capsular invasion: follicular carcinoma
Examination of the tumor-thyroid interface
Histologic examination features favoring follicular Ca:
Thick fibrous capsule
High cellularity, with solid or trabecular growth pattern
Diffuse nuclear atypia
Readily identified mitotic figures
51. CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES
10% of all thyroid ca
More common in iodine deficient areas
Female : Male = 3:1
Presentation at older age: 5th decade
Cervical LN uncommon at presentation
Haematogenous spread more common
52. CHARACTERISTIC
FEATURES
Usual presentation:
SNTs: recent rapid increase in size
Long standing MNG
Rarely present as thyrotoxicosis (hyper-functioning
nodule)
Indicators of malignancy in cases with FNAC
showing follicular features
Distant mets
Large tumours >4 cm in old males
Bony mets: typically vascular/warm/pulsatile.
Commonly in skull, long bones, ribs
54. PATHOLOGICAL FEATURES
Usually solitary lesions
Majority are encapsulated
Minimally invasive tumours: microscopic capsular invasion, no parenchymal invasion
Widely invasive tumours – widespread capsular invasion, e/o large vessel invasion
Tumor thrombi a characteristic feature
Due to limitations of FNAC: Novel genetic markers
BRAF, RAS, RET/PTC, MicroRNA 197, 346
55. SURGICAL MANAGEMENT
Follicular lesion on FNAC:Hemithyroidectomy (80% adenomas)
If HPE shows follicular Ca: Completion thyroidectomy
Total thyroidectomy indications:
Older patients
Lesion >4cm ( cancer risk is 50%)
Atypia on FNAC
Family history of thyroid cancer
History of radiation exposure
Total thyroidectomy advocated mainly because RAI can be used to eliminate residual/
metastatic disease
56. NECK DISSECTION
Occasional spread to cervical lymph nodes (10%)
Prophylactic nodal dissection not indicated
Proven nodal metastases: therapeutic neck dissection recommended
Prophylactic central neck dissection may be considered in patients
with large tumors >4 cm
57. PROGNOSIS: FOLLICULAR CA
The approximate cumulative mortality
15% at 10 years
30% at 20 years
Poor long-term prognosis predicted by:
1. Age >50 years at presentation
2. Tumor size >4 cm
3. Higher tumor grade
4. Marked vascular invasion
5. Extra-thyroidal invasion
6. Distant metastases at time of diagnosis
58. HÜRTHLE CELL VARIANT
Oncocytic, Oxyphilic, Ashkenazy cell neoplasms (3%)
Subtype of follicular Ca, cannot be diagnosed on FNAC
Differs from classical Follicular Ca:
More often multifocal and bilateral (about 30%)
Usually does not take up RAI (about 5%)
More likely to metastasize to local nodes (25%) and have distant mets at
presentation
Higher mortality rate (about 20% at 10 years)
59. HÜRTHLE CELL VARIANT
Routine central neck node dissection recommended
MRND if lateral neck nodes are positive (palpable/ USG)
Radio-iodine scanning & ablation usually ineffective
Should still be considered to ablate residual thyroid tissue and
occasionally ablate tumors as there is no other good therapy
60. POST OPERATIVE MANAGEMENT OF DTC
RADIOIODINE THERAPY
RAI ablation indications:
All patients with stage III and IV disease
All Patients with stage II disease <45 years
Stage I disease with aggressive histology or size >1.5 cm
Nodal mets
Multifocal disease
Extra-thyroidal or vascular invasion
61. RADIOIODINE THERAPY
More sensitive than X-ray/ CT in detecting metastatic/ residual ca
6 weeks after thyroidectomy, hypothyroid can be induced by discontinuing replacement to obtain
high serum TSH levels (30mU/L)
Diagnostic dose of I131 or I123 is given initially (1-3 mCi)
Whole-body scanning is performed to detect uptake of radioiodine
If any normal thyroid remnant or metastatic disease detected, therapeutic dose of I131 is
administered to ablate the tissue
Low-dose ablation (OPD Basis) - <30mCi (low risk cases)
High doses (100 – 200 mCi) for high risk, old age, incomplete resection
70. MTC – MANAGEMENT
Total thyroidectomy + bilateral central neck node dissection treatment of choice because:
Radio-Iodine ablation usually ineffective
High incidence of multicentricity
Palpable cervical lymph nodes: MRND
Tumour >1.5 cm: Ipsilateral prophylactic MRND
If node positive then contralateral node dissection
If phaeochromocytoma present: operated first
71. MTC – MANAGEMENT
In unresectable/ metastatic/ locally recurrent disease
tumour debulking surgery indicated to alleviate symptoms:
Pain
Flushing
Diarhhoea
Protective from death due to central neck/ mediastinal disease
External beam radiation: role in unresectable residual or recurrent tumour mass or
symptomatic bony mets
73. MANAGEMENT IN
MEN SYNDROMES
If PTH raised and hypercalcemia present,
at thyroidectomy, only obviously enlarged
parathyroid gland is removed
Other PTH glands should be marked and
preserved (20 % in MEN 2A develop HPT)
If devascularized PTH gland, auto-
transplantation to be done
Non-dominant forearm
SCM
74. PROPHYLACTIC
THYROIDECTOMY
Family members to be evaluated
with calcitonin level / RET
mutation screening, if positive
prophylactic total thyroidectomy
indicated
Prophylactic central neck node
dissection:
1. Avoided in calcitonin negative
and normal USG neck
2. To be done - If calcitonin
positive + USG s/o cancer
SCREENING CHARACTERISTICS AGE AT
SURGERY
Less aggressive mutations, normal annual
serum calcitonin, less aggressive family
history, normal neck USG
>5 yrs
Mutations at codon 634 <5 yrs
MEN-2B related mutations <1 yrs
75. FOLLOW-UP
&
PROGNOSIS
Annual monitoring:
Clinical examination
Calcitonin & CEA levels
USG Neck/ higher imaging if suspicion
FGD PET scan: Superior to other radionuclide
based studies for MTC
10 yr survival rate :
80 % - LN negative cases
45 % - LN involved
35 % - MEN2B worst prognosis
76. MANAGEMENT OF
RECURRENCE - MTC
Local recurrence:
surgical excision
Non localized
– I131 radioablation
– External beam
radiotherapy
78. CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES
Very aggressive, one of the most lethal malignancy
Median survival: 4 to 5 months from diagnosis
1-3 % of total thyroid malignancies (on a decline)
Median age 63-74 yrs
Female to male ratio = 1.5:1
79. CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES
Commonly related to prior/ concurrent well-differentiated thyroid ca or
benign thyroid disease which suggests:
Risk factors are similar
De-differentiation of well-differentiated thyroid cancer tissue, eventually
replaces all well-differentiated tissue
80. UNDIFFERENTIATED (ANAPLASTIC)
CARCINOMA
Presentation
Recent rapid enlargement in a long-standing goiter (commonest)
Recent growth with rapid increase in size
Regional invasion into trachea, larynx, RLN Palsy
Distant mets (most commonly lungs, bones & liver)
Mortality
Aggressive loco-regional invasion e.g. upper airway invasion/ obliteration
81. ATC - MANAGEMENT
Aggressive local therapy warranted
I131 ablation has no role
Doxorubicin + platinum based chemo: more effective than doxorubicin alone. No other
agent has a role
Best management strategy:
Early diagnosis + aggressive surgical resection + EBRT followed by doxorubicin based
chemo
Recent trials – Paclitaxel may have a role
Tracheostomy/ isthmusectomy: Relieve airway obstruction in unresectable cases
83. THYRIOD LYMPHOMA
Relatively rare disease
<1 % of thyroid malignancies
2 % of extra-nodal non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma
Most common: Non-Hodgkin B cell lymphomas
Majority are intermediate grade (70-90%)
Many are considered MALToma
May be associated with similar lesions in extra-nodal sites e.g. GI tract
85. THYRIOD
LYMPHOMA
Strong female preponderance 3:1 to 8:1
Age at diagnosis – 7th decade commonest
Presentation:-
F/s/o local invasion
Frequently have features of hypothyroidism
Correct diagnosis -
FNAC – may have f/o autoimmune or Hashimoto’s
thyroiditis
IHC crucial for correct identification (vs Anaplastic Ca)
86. MANAGEMENT
Optimal therapy possible due to:
Combination chemo + ability to obtain correct
diagnosis without surgery (Trucut Biopsy)
Ideal treatment – EBRT + combination
chemotherapy based on the histopathological
subtype
Most authors support rapid initiation of EBRT +
chemotherapy over surgical excision as it has lower
morbidity
CHOP regime (Cyclophosphamide, Doxorubicin,
Vincristine, and Prednisolone)
87. METASTASES TO THYROID
<1 % of all thyroid malignancies
Common sources:
Commonest: RCC (23%)
Breast (16%)
Lungs (15 %)
Melanoma (5 %)
Colon (5%)
Larynx (5%)
88. METASTASES TO THYROID
Occasional presentation
– thyroid mass from
occult primary
FNAC helps in
identification
Thyroid mets may grow
rapidly to cause airway
obstruction
Some patients may
require thyroidectomy to
control local symptoms
Not with higher doses >2000 cGy
Linear increase in risk from 6.5 – 2000 cGy
Read : Thyroid paradox
24 hour Urinary VMA, metanephrine and catecholamine – to rule out coexisting Phaeochromocytoma in MTC
Limitation • Difficult to differentiate between follicular adenoma and carcinoma on cytology as it depends upon capsular and angioinavision
MTC (70 %sensitive)
BRAF mutations – more aggressive tumour, extrathyroid extension more common
Independent predictor of recurrence and tumour related mortality
Warrants more extensive surgical excisions, higher doses of RAI, increased TSH suppression
prognosis is so good in these patients, no added survival