1. 1
CHAPTER 1
ABSTRACT
In this report we are going to describe how to design and construct an electrically
operated reciprocatory motion i.e. Electromagnetic Actuator. This actuator works on the
principle of magnetic repulsion between two magnets. This electromagnetic actuator consists of
two magnets, one of them is an Electromagnet and other one is a Permanent Magnet. Permanent
Magnet acts as piston and Electromagnet is located at the top of the cylinder . The Electromagnet
is energized by a battery source of suitable voltage and the polarities of electromagnet are set in
such a way that it will repel the permanent magnet i.e. piston from TDC to BDC. There is a
solenoid formed in which current is passed resulting in magnetic flux. When current flows it
repels the piston .When the piston is at BDC the supply of Electromagnet is discontinued, the
permanent magnet which was repelled to BDC will come back to its initial position i.e. TDC.
This procedure completes our output work. Switching of electromagnet is controlled by relay.
The total power supplied by battery will be just to fulfill the copper losses of winding and power
required to magnetize the windings.So electric energy is converted into linear motion and it can
be used in like electric start motors, electric door locks, appliances, hydraulic valves,
speaker/voice coils, pinball machines, punching press, etc.

2. 2
INTRODUCTION
Electromagnetic Actuator is a system converting electric energy into reciprocatory
motion by using electromagnetic effect. The use of internal combustion engine has been
predominant for a long time, for automotive purposes which uses diesel or petrol for providing
the required energy. In I.C engine when the piston is close to top dead center, the compressed
air-fuel mixture combustion is ignited, usually by a spark plug. The resulting massive pressure
compressed fuel-air mixture drives the piston back down toward bottom dead center with
tremendous force. This is known as the power stroke, which is the main source of the engine's
torque and power in conventional engine. The working of a two stroke engine can be understood
by figure.1. In two stroke engine the cycle is completed in one revolution of the crankshaft. Two
strokes are sufficient to complete the cycle, one for compressing the fresh charge and the other
for expansion or power stroke. The air or charge is inducted into the crankcase through the
spring loaded inlet valve when the pressure in the crankcase is reduced due to upward motion of
the piston during compression stroke. After the compression and ignition, expansion takes place
in the usual way.
The two stroke engine is advantageous as power stroke is obtained in each revolution of
the crankshaft. But these are less efficient due to less time of induction and are a cause of greater
fuel consumption.
The proposed work diminishes the
disadvantages associated with the conventional
two stroke engine keeping its desired advantages
intact viz. power stroke in each revolution,
lightness, compact design. This is achieved by
changing its power source from fuel pressure to
electromagnetic force. This project is about to
design electricity operated engine construction. In
this engine there is no use of fuels like diesel and
petrol.

3. 3
So this engine is operating on pure electricity coming from a battery source. An electromagnet is
positioned on the top of the cylinder, while construction of engine is traditional. And piston is
just a permanent magnet (Neodymium magnet). There is no combustion within the cylinder so
design of piston and cylinder arrangement is simpler as compared to IC Engine. So the accuracy
of dimensions is not a serious matter here. In addition, as the mixture ratio is made leaner, the
combustion process slows and occurs over larger crank-angle intervals, thereby causing
hydrocarbon emission levels and fuel consumption to rise. Electromagnetic Piston changes
electrical energy to mechanical energy. When we flow the current in Electromagnetic coil which
produce magnate and this magnate push the iron rod. Increasing the efficiency of reciprocating
engines has constantly been pursued since Otto-cycle engines were first used as vehicle power
plants. During the past decade, the impact of environmental factors and a national interest in
energy conservation have accentuated the need to produce clean and efficient engines. Improving
efficiency and meeting emissions standards have been tested and reported in the literature; these
ideas include using lean mixture ratios, stratified charges, and improved mixture distribution.
Lean-mixture-ratio combustion in internal- combustion engines has the potential of producing
low emissions and higher thermal efficiency for several reasons. First, excess oxygen in the
charge further oxidizes unburned hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide. Second, excess oxygen
lowers the peak combustion temperatures, which inhibits the formation of oxides of nitrogen.
Efficient lean-mixture-ratio operation, in terms of good vehicle performance, fuel economy, and
low hydrocarbon emissions, is limited for several reasons. A reduction in indicated mean
effective pressure (IMEP) occurs with lean mixtures. Also, at ultra lean mixture ratios, the cycle-
to-cycle and cylinder-to-cylinder variations in IMEP are drastically increased, which produces
sizable power fluctuations and causes engine surge and power train vibrations. These conditions
control the rate of the combustion process; therefore distance increases with leaner mixture
ratios, which also causes hydrocarbon emission levels to rise. Another problem is the lean-
mixture-rat misfire limit, which occurs near the flammability limits of the fuel. Cycle-to-cycle
and cylinder-to-cylinder variations can cause an individual cylinder to exceed the lean
flammability limits and thus misfire. Incipient lean-limit misfire is characterized by high
hydrocarbon emissions, rough engine operation, and poor fuel economy.

4. 4
CHAPTER 2
CONSTRUCTION
Construction of the electromagnet is similar to the IC Engine. It consists of one
Electromagnet and one permanent magnet. Electromagnet is positioned on the top of the cylinder
of engine, and permanent magnet is used as the piston in engine. Piston of the engine is
connected to the crank shaft through connecting rod. Connecting rod is connected to the crank
shaft by using gudgeon pin. The cam and follower arrangement is used to control the switching
of electromagnets. The schematic diagram of Electromagnetic Engine is shown in fig.
1. Electromagnet: It is made of copper windings of suitable gauge. Turns of windings are kept as
per magnetic field required. Consumption in wattage for electromagnet is only to fulfill its
copper losses. Electromagnet will repel the piston consuming very less power.

5. 5
2. Piston: It is made of a very strong Neodymium magnet.
3. Connecting rod: It is made of aluminum alloy.
4. Crank shaft: It is made of steel alloy.
5. Cam and follower: This is used here to control switching of the circuit for electromagnets.
6. Capacitors: They are here to balance the reactive power in electromagnets.
7. Switches: These are operated by cam and follower arrangement. And are normal DC circuit
switches.
8. Crank case: It is made of aluminum alloy.
PROPOSED METHODOLOGY
A. Working Principle:-
The basic principle behind the proposed mechanism lies in the concept of simple
magnetism properties, viz. same poles repel each other and opposite poles attract each other.
.
B. Implementation
This principle proposes the idea for electromagnetic engine, which consists of a pair of
electromagnets. One of which is moveable inside the cylinder at the piston head and other is
fixed as the cylinder head of the engine. The change in direction of current of the fixed
electromagnet, which consequently changes the polarity of the electromagnet from south to north
and vice-versa is achieved by using a micro controller coupled with high rating current regulator.
The polarity of the moving electromagnet is fixed. Hence the fixed electromagnet will attract and
repel the moving electromagnet. Thus it will produce a reciprocating motion and by the help of
connecting rod and crankshaft this reciprocating motion is converted into rotary motion. This is
further explained in the following subsection.
Now, the actions of the electromagnetic piston is as follows :-

6. 6
In operation of the electromagnetic piston engine, a current is fed through the coil in the
direction in which the magnitude of the magnetic pole of the permanent magnet is increased.
Although the piston moves reciprocally in the cylinder in a manner as will be described
hereinafter. The feeding can excite the whole area of the piston to the S pole by the magnetic
forces of the permanent magnet and the booster coil.
A current is fed in the direction of exciting the cylinder to the S pole and the outer
cylinder to the N pole during a period of time during which the piston moves from the top dead
center to the bottom dead center . On the other hand, the current is fed in the direction of
magnetizing the cylinder 2 to the N pole and the outer cylinder 3 to the S pole during a period of
time during which the piston is being directed to the top dead center from the bottom dead
center. The feeding of the exciting current is performed repeatedly in a periodical way.
By exciting the coil in the manner as described hereinabove, the S pole of the piston and
the N pole of the cylinder become attracting each other during the time during which the piston
moves toward the top dead center from the bottom dead center, thereby raising the piston toward
the top dead center by the attracting force. As the piston has reached the top dead center, the
exciting current of the exciting coil is inverted. The inversion of the exciting current then excites
the cylinder to the S pole to repel the S pole of the piston and the S pole of the cylinder from
each other and the repellent force pushes down the piston downwardly toward the bottom dead
center. As the piston has reached the bottom dead center, the exciting current of the exciting coil
is inverted again. This repetitive actions create a reciprocal movement of the piston in the
cylinder and the reciprocal movement is then converted into a rotary movement of a crank shaft
through the connecting rod.
C. Schematic Diagram
The working methodology is explained by figure 2 and figure 3. Here A denotes the
stationary electromagnet (engine head) and B denotes the movable electromagnet (piston head).

7. 7
Fig.2 When the piston is at TDC the polarity of both the electromagnets are same due to which a repulsive
force act on the piston head to push it down which is as same as the gas force act on the piston head in
conventional engine during power stroke.

8. 8
Fig.3. when the piston is at BDC the polarity of the fixed electromagnet changes and it attracts the piston
toward it and the piston moves upward. This process is repeated for further cycles. This process is controlled
by microcontroller.

9. 9
BLOCK DIAGRAM
The working of the proposed engine can be well studied by going through the following block
diagram which is shown below.
Calculating the magnetic force
Calculating the attractive or repulsive force between two magnets is, in the general case, an
extremely complex operation, as it depends on the shape, magnetization, orientation and
separation of the magnets.
The force exerted by electromagnet on a section of core material :
𝐹 =
𝐵2
A
2µ
1 T = 4 atmospheres
where
F is force (SI unit: Newtons)
B is magnetic field produced (SI unit: Tesla),A is cross sectional area (SI unit: meter
square)
µ = 4π * pow(10,-7)
is the permeability of free space (or air);

10. 10
CHAPTER 3
PART DESCRIPTION
1. ELECTROMAGNET
An electromagnet in its simplest form is a wire that has been coiled into one or more
loops, known as a solenoid. When electric current flows through the wire, a magnetic field is
generated. It is concentrated near (and especially inside) the coil, and its field lines are very
similar to those for a magnet. The orientation of this effective magnet is determined via the right
hand rule. The magnetic moment and the magnetic field of the electromagnet are proportional to
the number of loops of wire, to the cross-section of each loop, and to the current passing through
the wire.
If the coil of wire is wrapped around a material with no special magnetic properties (e.g.,
cardboard), it will tend to generate a very weak field. However, if it is wrapped around a "soft"
ferromagnetic material, such as an iron nail, then the net field produced can result in a several
hundred- to thousand fold increase of field strength.
Uses for electromagnets include particle accelerators, electric motors, junkyard cranes,
and magnetic resonance imaging machines.
2. PISTON
A piston is a component of reciprocating engines ,.reciprocating pumps ,gas compressors
and pneumatic cylinders, among other similar mechanisms. It is the moving component that is
contained by a cylinder and is made gas-tight by piston rings. In an engine, its purpose is to
transfer force from expanding gas in the cylinder to the crankshaft via a piston rod and/or
connecting rod. In a pump, the function is reversed and force is transferred from the crankshaft to
the piston for the purpose of compressing or ejecting the fluid in the cylinder. In some engines,
the piston also acts as a valve by covering and uncovering ports in the cylinder wall.
The piston of an internal combustion engine is acted upon by the pressure of the
expanding combustion gases in the combustion chamber space at the top of the cylinder. This
force then acts downwards through the connecting rod and onto the crankshaft. The connecting

11. 11
rod is attached to the piston by a swiveling gudgeon pin. This pin is mounted within the piston:
unlike the steam engine, there is no piston rod or crosshead.
The pin itself is of hardened steel and is fixed in the piston, but free to move in the
connecting rod. A few designs use a 'fully floating' design that is loose in both components. All
pins must be prevented from moving sideways and the ends of the pin digging into the cylinder
wall, usually by circlips.
Gas sealing is achieved by the use of piston rings. These are a number of narrow iron
rings, fitted loosely into grooves in the piston, just below the crown. The rings are split at a point
in the rim, allowing them to press against the cylinder with a light spring pressure. Two types of
ring are used: the upper rings have solid faces and provide gas sealing; lower rings have narrow
edges and a U-shaped profile, to act as oil scrapers. There are many proprietary and detail design
features associated with piston rings.
Pistons are cast from aluminum alloys. For better strength and fatigue life, some racing
pistons may be forged instead. Early pistons were of cast iron, but there were obvious benefits
for engine balancing if a lighter alloy could be used. To produce pistons that could survive
engine combustion temperatures, it was necessary to develop new alloys such as Y alloy and
Hiduminium, specifically for use as pistons.
3. MICROCONTROLLER
The powerful (200 nanosecond instruction execution) yet easy-to-program (only 35
single word instructions) CMOS FLASH-based 8-bit microcontroller packs Microchip's
powerful PIC® architecture into an 28-pin package and is upwards compatible with the
PIC16C5X, PIC12CXXX and PIC16C7X devices. The PIC16F72 features 5 channels of 8-bit
Analog-to-Digital (A/D) converter with 2 additional timers, capture/compare/PWM function and
the synchronous serial port can be configured as either 3-wire Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI™)
or the 2-wire Inter-Integrated Circuit (I²C™) bus. All of these features make it ideal for more
advanced level A/D applications in automotive, industrial, appliances and consumer applications.

12. 12
DEVICE SPECIFICATION
High Performance RISC CPU:
• Only 35 single word instructions to learn
• All single cycle instructions except for program branches, which are two-cycle
• Operating speed: DC - 20 MHz clock input DC - 200 ns instruction cycle
• 2K x 14 words of Program Memory, 128 x 8 bytes of Data Memory (RAM)
• Pin out compatible to PIC16C72/72A and PIC16F872
• Interrupt capability
• Eight-level deep hardware stack
• Direct, Indirect and Relative Addressing modes
Peripheral Features:
• High Sink/Source Current: 25 mA
• Timer0: 8-bit timer/counter with 8-bit prescaler
• Timer1: 16-bit timer/counter with prescaler, can be incremented during SLEEP via
external crystal/clock
• Timer2: 8-bit timer/counter with 8-bit period register, prescaler and postscaler
• Capture, Compare, PWM (CCP) module
- Capture is 16-bit, maximum resolution is 12.5 ns
- Compare is 16-bit, maximum resolution is 200 ns
- PWM maximum resolution is 10-bit
• 8-bit, 5-channel analog-to-digital converter
• Synchronous Serial Port (SSP) with SPI™ (Master/Slave) and I2C™ (Slave)
• Brown-out detection circuitry for Brown-out Reset (BOR)
CMOS Technology:
• Low power, high speed CMOS FLASH technology
• Fully static design

13. 13
• Wide operating voltage range: 2.0V to 5.5V
• Industrial temperature range
• Low power consumption:
- < 0.6 mA typical @ 3V, 4 MHz
- 20 micro A typical @ 3V, 32 kHz
- < 1 micro A typical standby current
Special Microcontroller Features:
• 1,000 erase/write cycle FLASH program memory typical
• Power-on Reset (POR), Power-up Timer (PWRT) and Oscillator Start-up Timer (OST)
• Watchdog Timer (WDT) with its own on-chip RC oscillator for reliable operation
• Programmable code protection
• Power saving SLEEP mode
• Selectable oscillator options
• In-Circuit Serial Programming™ (ICSP™) via 2 pins

14. 14
Circuit Diagram

15. 15
Each PIC16F72 instruction is a 14-bit word divided into an OPCODE that specifies the
instruction type and one or more operands that further specify the operation of the instruction.
The PIC16F72 instruction set summary in Table below lists byte-oriented, bit-oriented, and
literal and control operations. Table below shows the opcode field descriptions. For byte-
oriented instructions, ‘f’ represents a file register designator and‘d’ represents a destination
designator. The file register designator specifies which file register is to be used by the
instruction. The destination designato. For bit-oriented instructions, ‘b’ represents a bit field
designator which selects the number of the bit affected by the operation, while ‘f’ represents the
number of the file in which the bit is located. For literal and control operations, ‘k’ represents
an eight or eleven-bit constant or literal value.
The instruction set is highly orthogonal and is grouped into three basic categories:
• Byte-oriented operations
• Bit-oriented operations
• Literal and control operations
All instructions are executed within one single instruction cycle, unless a conditional test is true
or the program counter is changed as a result of an instruction. In this case, the execution takes
two instruction cycles, with the second cycle executed as a NOP. One instruction cycle consists
of four oscillator periods. Thus, for an oscillator frequency of 4 MHz, the normal instruction
execution time is 1s.

16. 16
Fig.6 Pin Description

17. 17
4. TRANSFORMER
A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another by
magnetic coupling without requiring relative motion between its parts. It usually comprises two
or more coupled windings, and, in most cases, a core to concentrate magnetic flux. A transformer
operates from the application of an alternating voltage to one winding, which creates a time-
varying magnetic flux in the core. This varying flux induces a voltage in the other windings.
Varying the relative number of turns between primary and secondary windings determines the
ratio of the input and output voltages, thus transforming the voltage by stepping it up or down
between circuits. The principles of the transformer are illustrated by consideration of a
hypothetical ideal transformer consisting of two windings of zero resistance around a core of
negligible reluctance. A voltage applied to the primary winding causes a current, which develops
a magneto motive force (MMF) in the core. The current required to create the MMF is termed
the magnetizing current; in the ideal transformer it is considered to be negligible. The MMF
drives flux around the magnetic circuit of the core.
Fig.7 Ideal Transformer as a circuit element
An electromotive force (EMF) is induced across each winding, an effect known as mutual
inductance. The windings in the ideal transformer have no resistance and so the EMFs are equal
in magnitude to the measured terminal voltages. In accordance with Faraday's law of induction,
they are proportional to the rate of change of flux:
and

18. 18
Where:
and are the induced EMFs across primary and secondary windings,
and are the numbers of turns in the primary and secondary windings,
And are the time derivatives of the flux linking the primary and secondary
windings.
In the ideal transformer, all flux produced by the primary winding also links the secondary, and
so , from which the well-known transformer equation follows:
The ratio of primary to secondary voltage is therefore the same as the ratio of the number of
turns; alternatively, that the volts-per-turn is the same in both windings. The conditions that
determine Transformer working in STEP UP or STEP DOWN mode are:
Ns >Np - condition for step-up
Ns <Np – condition for step-down
5. RECTIFIER
A bridge rectifier is an arrangement of four diodes connected in a bridge circuit as shown
below, that provides the same polarity of output voltage for any polarity of the input voltage.The
essential feature of this arrangement is that for both polarities of the voltage at the bridge input,
the polarity of the output is constant.
When the input connected at the left corner of the diamond is positive with respect to the
one connected at the right hand corner, current flows to the right along the upper colored path to
the output, and returns to the input supply via the lower one.
In each case, the upper right output remains positive with respect to the lower right one. Since
this is true whether the input is AC or DC, this circuit not only produces DC power when
supplied with AC power: it also can provide what is sometimes called "reverse polarity
protection". That is, it permits normal functioning when batteries are installed backwards or DC

19. 19
input-power supply wiring "has its wires crossed" (and protects the circuitry it powers against
damage that might occur without this circuit in place).
6. VOLTAGE REGULATOR
A voltage regulator is an electrical regulator designed to automatically maintain a
constant voltage level. It may use an electromechanical mechanism, or passive or active
electronic components. Depending on the design, it may be used to regulate one or more AC or
DC voltages. With the exception of shunt regulators, all voltage regulators operate by comparing
the actual output voltage to some internal fixed reference voltage. Any difference is amplified
and used to control the regulation element. This forms a negative feedback servo control loop. If
the output voltage is too low, the regulation element is commanded to produce a higher voltage.
For some regulators if the output voltage is too high, the regulation element is commanded to
produce a lower voltage; however, many just stop sourcing current and depend on the current
draw of whatever it is driving to pull the voltage back down. In this way, the output voltage is
held roughly constant. The control loop must be carefully designed to produce the desired
tradeoff between stability and speed of response.
LM7805 (3-Terminal Fixed Voltage Regulator)-
FEATURES-
• Output Current up to 1A
• Output Voltages of 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 15, 18, 24V
• Thermal Overload Protection
• Short Circuit Protection
• Output Transistor Safe Operating Area Protection

20. 20
Fig8. Internal block diagram
Fig9 Fixedoutput regulator
7. RELAYS
A relay is an electrically operated switch. Current flowing through the coil of the relay
creates a magnetic field, which attracts a lever and changes the switch contacts. The coil current
can be on or off so relays have two switch positions and they are double throw (changeover)

21. 21
switches. Relays allow one circuit to switch a second circuit that can be completely separate
from the first. For example a low voltage battery circuit can use a relay to switch a 230V AC
mains circuit. There is no electrical connection inside the relay between the two circuits. The link
is magnetic and mechanical. The coil of a relay passes a relatively large current, typically 30mA
for a 12V relay, but it can be as much as 100mA for relays designed to operate from lower
voltages. Most ICs (chips) cannot provide this current and a transistor is usually used to amplify
the small IC current to the larger value required for the relay coil. The maximum output current
for the popular 555 timer IC is 200mA so these devices can supply relay coils directly without
amplification.
Relays are usually SPDT or DPDT but they can have many more sets of switch contacts,
for example relays with 4 sets of changeover contacts are readily available. For further
information about switch contacts.
Fig10 Images of relay

22. 22
Most relays are designed for PCB mounting but you can solder wires directly to the pin
providing you take care to avoid melting the plastic case of the relay.
The relay's switch connections are usually labeled COM, NC and NO:
 COM = Common, always connect to this, it is the moving part of the switch.
 NC = Normally Closed, COM is connected to this when the relay coil is off.
 NO = Normally Open, COM is connected to this when the relay coil is on.
 Connect to COM and NO if you want the switched circuit to be on when the relay coil is on.
 Connect to COM and NC if you want the switched circuit to be on when the relay coil is off.
8. CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR
It is often required to produce a signal whose frequency or pulse rate is very stable and
exactly known. This is important in any application where anything to do with time or exact
measurement is crucial. It is relatively simple to make an oscillator that produces some sort of a
signal, but another matter to produce one of relatively precise frequency and stability.
An oscillator is basically an amplifier and a frequency selective feedback network. When,
at a particular frequency, the loop gain is unity or more, and the total phase shift at this frequency
is zero, or some multiple of 360 degrees, the condition for oscillation is satisfied, and the circuit
will produce a periodic waveform of this frequency. This is usually a sine wave, or square wave,
but triangles, impulses, or other waveforms can be produced. In fact, several different waveforms
often are simultaneously produced by the same circuit, at different points. It is also possible to
have several frequencies produced as well, although this is generally undesirable.
9. CAPACITOR
A capacitor or condenser is a passive electronic component consisting of a pair of
conductors separated by a dielectric (insulator). When a potential difference (voltage) exists
across the conductors, an electric field is present in the dielectric. This field stores energy and
produces a mechanical force between the conductors. The effect is greatest when there is a

23. 23
narrow separation between large areas of conductor , hence capacitor conductors are often called
plates.
An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value, capacitance, which is
measured in farads. This is the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to the potential
difference between them. In practice, the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of
leakage current. The conductors and leads introduce an equivalent series resistance and the
dielectric has an electric field strength limit resulting in a breakdown voltage.
Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits to block the flow of direct current while
allowing alternating current to pass, to filter out interference, to smooth the output of power
supplies, and for many other purposes. They are used in resonant circuits in radio frequency
equipment to select particular frequencies from a signal with many frequencies.
Fig11 View of capacitor’s operation
Charge separation in a parallel-plate capacitor causes an internal electric field. A
dielectric (orange) reduces the field and increases the capacitance.
A capacitor consists of two conductors separated by a non-conductive region.The non-
conductive substance is called the dielectric medium, although this may also mean a vacuum or a
semiconductor depletion region chemically identical to the conductors. A capacitor is assumed to
be self-contained and isolated, with no net electric charge and no influence from an external
electric field. The conductors thus contain equal and opposite charges on their facing surfaces,

24. 24
and the dielectric contains an electric field. The capacitor is a reasonably general model for
electric fields within electric circuits.
An ideal capacitor is wholly characterized by a constant capacitance C, defined as the
ratio of charge ±Q on each conductor to the voltage V between them
Sometimes charge buildup affects the mechanics of the capacitor, causing the capacitance
to vary. In this case, capacitance is defined in terms of incremental changes:
In SI units, a capacitance of one farad means that one coulomb of charge on each
conductor causes a voltage of one volt across the device.
10. RESISTORS
Resistors are used to limit the value of current in a circuit. Resistors offer opposition to
the flow of current. They are expressed in ohms for which the symbol is ‘’. Resistors are
broadly classified as
(1) Fixed Resistors
(2) Variable Resistors
Fixed Resistors:
The most common of low wattage, fixed type resistors is the molded-carbon composition
resistor. The resistive material is of carbon clay composition. The leads are made of tinned
copper. Resistors of this type are readily available in value ranging from few ohms to about

25. 25
20M, having a tolerance range of 5 to 20%. They are quite inexpensive. The relative size of all
fixed resistors changes with the wattage rating.
Another variety of carbon composition resistors is the metalized type. It is made
by deposition a homogeneous film of pure carbon over a glass, ceramic or other insulating core.
This type of film-resistor is sometimes called the precision type, since it can be obtained with an
accuracy of 1%.
Coding Of Resistor:
Some resistors are large enough in size to have their resistance printed on the body.
However there are some resistors that are too small in size to have numbers printed on them.
Therefore, a system of color coding is used to indicate their values. For fixed, moulded
composition resistor four color bands are printed on one end of the outer casing. The color bands
are always read left to right from the end that has the bands closest to it. The first and second
band represents the first and second significant digits, of the resistance value. The third band is
for the number of zeros that follow the second digit. In case the third band is gold or silver, it
represents a multiplying factor of 0.1to 0.01. The fourth band represents the manufacture’s
tolerance.
Most resistors have 4 bands:
 The first band gives the first digit.
 The second band gives the second digit.
 The third band indicates the number of zeros.
 The fourth band is used to show the tolerance (precision) of the resistor.
VARIABLE RESISTOR:
In electronic circuits, sometimes it becomes necessary to adjust the values of currents and
voltages. For n example it is often desired to change the volume of sound, the brightness of a
television picture etc. Such adjustments can be done by using variable resistors.
Although the variable resistors are usually called rheostats in other applications, the
smaller variable resistors commonly used in electronic circuits are called potentiometers.

26. 26
11. TRANSISTORS
A transistor is an active device. It consists of two PN junctions formed by sandwiching
either p-type or n-type semiconductor between a pair of opposite types.
There are two types of transistor:
1. n-p-n transistor
2. p-n-p transistor
An n-p-n transistor is composed of two n-type semiconductors separated by a thin section
of p-type. However a p-n-p type semiconductor is formed by two p-sections separated by a thin
section of n-type.
Transistor has two P-N junctions one junction is forward biased and other is reversed
biased. The forward junction has a low resistance path whereas a reverse biased junction has a
high resistance path.
The weak signal is introduced in the low resistance circuit and output is taken from the
high resistance circuit. Therefore a transistor transfers a signal from a low resistance to high
resistance.
Transistor has three sections of doped semiconductors. The section on one side is emitter
and section on the opposite side is collector. The middle section is base.
Emitter: The section on one side that supplies charge carriers is called emitter. The emitter is
always forward biased with respect to base.

27. 27
Collector: The section on the other side that collects the charge is called collector. The collector
is always reversed biased.
Base: The middle section which forms two PN-junctions between the emitter and collector is
called base.
A transistor raises the strength of a weak signal and thus acts as an amplifier. The weak
signal is applied between emitter-base junction and output is taken across the load RC connected
in the collector circuit. The collector current flowing through a high load resistance RC produces
a large voltage across it. Thus a weak signal applied in the input appears in the amplified form in
the collector circuit.
12. CONNECTORS
Connectors are basically used for interface between two. Here we use connectors for having
interface between PCB and 8051 Microprocessor Kit .There are two types of connectors they
are male and female. The one, which is with pins inside, is female and other is male.
These connectors are having bus wires with them for connection.
For high frequency operation the average circumference of a coaxial cable must be limited to
about one wavelength, in order to reduce multimodal propagation and eliminate erratic reflection
coefficients, power losses, and signal distortion. The standardization of coaxial connectors
during World War II was mandatory for microwave operation to maintain a low reflection
coefficient or a low voltage standing wave ratio.

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Components Cost
S.No Components Quantity Price
1. Microcontroller 1 120
2. Diode 5 5*8=40
3. Ceramic Capacitor 3 3*4=12
4. Electrolytic Capacitor 2 2*12=24
5. Resistor 3 3*4=12
6. Transistor 1 20
7. Crystal Oscillator 1 20
8. Relay 1 11
9. Wiring 1 20
10. Coil 1 100
11. Step down Transformer 1 125

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CHAPTER 4
ABOUT MAGNETISM
Iron filings that have oriented in the magnetic field produced by a bar magnet.Magnetic
field lines of a solenoid which are similar to a bar magnet as illustrated above with the iron
filings.
A magnet is a material or object that produces a magnetic field. This magnetic field is
invisible but is responsible for the most notable property of a magnet: a force that pulls on other
magnetic materials and attracts or repels other magnets. A permanent magnet is one that stays
magnetized, such as a magnet used to hold notes on a refrigerator door. Materials which can be
magnetized, which are also the ones that are strongly attracted to a magnet, are called
ferromagnetic. These include iron, nickel, cobalt, some rare earth metals and some of their
alloys, and some naturally occurring minerals such as lodestone. The other type of magnet is an
electromagnet, a coil of wire which acts as a magnet when an electric current passes through it,
but stops being a magnet when the current stops. Often an electromagnet is wrapped around a
core of ferromagnetic material like steel, which enhances the magnetic field produced by the
coil. Permanent magnets are made from "hard" ferromagnetic materials which are designed to
stay magnetized, while "soft" ferromagnetic materials like soft iron are attracted to a magnet but
don't tend to stay magnetized.
Although ferromagnetic materials are the only ones strongly enough attracted to a magnet
to be commonly considered "magnetic", all other substances respond weakly to a magnetic field,
by one of several other types of magnetism. Paramagnetic materials, such as aluminum and
oxygen are weakly attracted to a magnet. Diamagnetic materials, such as carbon and water,
which include all substances not having another type of magnetism, are weakly repelled by a
magnet.

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The overall strength of a magnet is measured by its magnetic moment, while the local strength of
the magnetism in a material is measured by its magnetization.
Background on the physics of magnetism and magnets
The effects of magnetism.
Magnetization and demagnetization
Ferromagnetic materials can be magnetized in the following ways:
Heating the object above its Curie temperature, allowing it to cool in a magnetic field and
hammering it as it cools. This is the most effective method, and is similar to the industrial
processes used to create permanent magnets.
Placing the item in an external magnetic field will result in the item retaining some of the
magnetism on removal. Vibration has been shown to increase the effect. Ferrous
materials aligned with the earth's magnetic field and which are subject to vibration (e.g.
frame of a conveyor) have been shown to acquire significant residual magnetism. A
magnetic field much stronger than the earth's can be generated inside a solenoid by
passing direct current through it.

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Stroking - An existing magnet is moved from one end of the item to the other repeatedly
in the same direction.
Magnetized materials can be demagnetized in the following ways:
 Heating a magnet past its Curie temperature - the molecular motion destroys the
alignment of the magnetic domains. This always removes all magnetization.
 Hammering or jarring - the mechanical disturbance tends to randomize the magnetic
domains. Will leave some residual magnetization.
 Placing the magnet in an alternating magnetic field, such as that generated by a solenoid
with an alternating current through it, and then either slowly drawing the magnet out or
slowly decreasing the magnetic field to zero. This is the principle used in commercial
demagnetizers to demagnetize tools and erase credit cards and hard disks, and degaussing
coils used to demagnetize CRTs.
Electromagnets
An electromagnet in its simplest form, is a wire that has been coiled into one or more
loops, known as a solenoid. When electric current flows through the wire, a magnetic field is
generated. It is concentrated near (and especially inside) the coil, and its field lines are very
similar to those for a magnet. The orientation of this effective magnet is determined via the right
hand rule. The magnetic moment and the magnetic field of the electromagnet are proportional to
the number of loops of wire, to the cross-section of each loop, and to the current passing through
the wire.
If the coil of wire is wrapped around a material with no special magnetic properties (e.g.,
cardboard), it will tend to generate a very weak field. However, if it is wrapped around a "soft"
ferromagnetic material, such as an iron nail, then the net field produced can result in a several
hundred- to thousandfold increase of field strength.

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CHAPTER 5
INDUSTRIAL UTILIZABILITY
The electromagnetic actuator according to our project is operated by the electromagnetic
action and can generate greater magnetic force by a smaller exciting current because the number
of windings of exciting coils can be increased to a large extent by its structure. Further, the
magnetic force so produced can be utilized as a driving force so that this piston arrangement is
extremely superior from the energy-saving point of view to usual electric drive motors and that it
is suitable as a driving source particularly for electric vehicles and so on.
Where the magnetic force so produced is utilized as a driving force for electric vehicles
in the manner as described hereinabove, a variety of technology developed for internal
combustion piston engines for vehicles, such as power transmission mechanisms and so on, may
also be used for electric vehicles with ease. Therefore, the current plants and equipment for
manufacturing vehicles can also be applied to manufacturing electric vehicles and the technology
involved in this project can also greatly contribute to facilitating the development of electric
vehicles.
Further, the electromagnetic piston according to our project is not of the type rotating the
rotor directly by the electromagnetic action as with conventional electric drive motors so that the
problems with the heavy weight of a portion corresponding to the rotary assembly portion and so
on, which are involved in conventional electric drive motors for vehicles, may be solved at once.
Moreover, the electromagnetic piston according to our project does not generate such a large
amount of heat from its principles as with conventional internal combustion piston engines so
that no cooling mechanism for cooling engines for vehicles is required, thereby contributing to
making electric vehicles lightweight and compact in size. Also, as the electromagnetic piston
according to this project can eliminate various mechanical resistance which is otherwise caused
naturally from the structure itself of internal combustion piston engines, efficiency of energy
consumption can be increased .In addition, the electromagnetic piston according to our project is
higher in efficiency of energy consumption as compared with gasoline engines, so that it is
extremely advantageous over gasoline engines in terms of saving energy. Furthermore, as the

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electromagnetic piston uses electricity that is clean energy, it is extremely useful in terms of
preservation of the environment of the earth. So electric energy is converted into linear motion
and it can be used in like electric start motors, electric door locks, appliances, hydraulic valves,
speaker/voice coils, pinball machines, punching press, etc.

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CHAPTER 6
BACKGROUND TECHNOLOGY
In the recent years, the development of electric vehicles is exploding. Such electric
vehicles use an electric drive motor as a power source. Conventional electric drive motors are
designed to pick up rotational energy of a rotor as a power by directly rotating the rotor by
electromagnetic force.
The electric drive motors of such a type, however, lead naturally to an increase in the
weight of a rotor in order to pick up greater outputs and, as a consequence, suffer from the
disadvantages that the weight of the portion corresponding to a rotary assembly section becomes
heavy. The such electric drive motors require a power transmission mechanism for transmitting
the driving power from a power source to the wheels to be designed to be adapted to the features
of the such electric drive motors. Power transmission mechanisms for internal combustion piston
engines, which have been generally used for conventional vehicles, cannot always be applied to
electric vehicles as they are. These problems impose greater burdens upon the designing of
electric vehicles.
For internal combustion piston engines, there are a variety of resistance that result from their
structures. They may include, for example,
(1) Air intake resistance of an air cleaner;
(2) Resistance of a cam shaft;
(3) Compression resistance in a cylinder;
(4) Resistance of a piston to an inner wall of a cylinder;
(5) Resistance of a cooling fan;
(6) Resistance of a water pump;

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(7) Resistance of an oil pump.
The loss of energy due to those resistances are the causes of reducing the energy
efficiency of the internal combustion piston engines. An overall system assembly of the internal
combustion piston engine further has the additional problem with an increase in the entire weight
due to the necessity of installment of a mechanism for cooling the internal combustion piston
engine because the internal combustion piston engine cannot avoid the generation of a
considerably large amount of heat by the principles of the engine themselves.
Given the foregoing problems inherent in conventional internal combustion piston
engines, our project has the object to provide an electromagnetic piston engine which can offer
the effects of eliminating the various resistances inherent in the conventional internal combustion
piston engines, reducing the weight corresponding to a rotary assembly section even if greater
outputs can be taken, further making ready applications to power transmission mechanisms for
use with conventional internal combustion piston engines, and achieving improved efficiency in
utilizing energy.

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CHAPTER 7
CONCLUSION OF THE PROJECT
The electromagnetic piston engine according to our project in one aspect comprises a
cylinder and a piston, each made of a magnetic material, a cylinder electromagnet having an
inner wall of the cylinder magnetizable to a one magnetic pole, and a piston magnetization unit
for magnetizing a portion of the piston engagable with the cylinder to a single magnetic pole in a
fixed manner, in which the piston is transferred in a one direction by creating a magnetic
attraction force between the cylinder and the piston by exciting the cylinder electromagnet; and
the piston is then transferred in the opposite direction by creating a magnetic repellent force there
between, followed by repeating this series of the actions of alternately creating the magnetic
attraction force and the magnetic repellent force to allow the piston to perform a reciprocal
movement.
The electromagnetic piston engine according to our project in another aspect is
constructed by arranging a combination of the cylinder with the piston in -the aspects described
above as a one assembly, arranging the one assembly in plural numbers and operating the plural
assemblies in a parallel way, and converting a reciprocal movement of the piston in each of the
plural assemblies into a rotary movement of a single crank shaft by a crank mechanism.
MAIN ADVANTAGES-
Electromagnetic piston as stated earlier is a piston that works on the usage of
electromagnet which develops magnetism property on the passage and availability of current
supply. These pistons can be used where speed is the most required emergency of the need.
Secondly manual working can be eliminated if the application is used in the conveyor belt
working where with the help of sensors defected pieces can be picked up using different
programming aspects. Thirdly these electromagnetic pistons can be used is the punching
machine applications. There is wide usage of these pistons, giving the advantage of spacing,
these pistons reduce the space requirement. This system is comparatively less bulky and can also
be used in engines where fuel usage is prohibited.

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DISADVANTAGES:-
 If frequency of the piston is to be changed , programming done in the microcontroller has
to be changed and IC is to be burned again and again.
 This electromagnetic piston does not remove friction and wear problem.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY
 Mathur and Sharma, Internal Combustion Engine, Tata McGraw Hill Publications.
 www.futurlec.com
 www.wikipedia.org
 www.uk.farnell.com
 www.electronics.howstuffworks.com
 www.electroncomponents.com
 www.evselectro.com
 www.hasbro.com
 www.transformerdc.org
 www.phet.colorado.com
 www.inventors.about.com
 www.capacitorguide.com