project

3. Type of nervous system determines rate of creation of new conditioned
reflexes, strength and stability of these reflexes, intensity of external and
internal inhibition, rate of irradiation and concentration of nervous
processes, the capacity for induction and less or grater possibility for
development of abnormalities of higher nervous activity.
TYPE OF NERVOUS SYSTEM

4. I.P. Pavlov classifies types of higher nervous activity according to several
attributes that considered as most reliable indices of higher nervous activity.
These were intensity of the excitation and inhibition, the ratio of these processes
in central nervous system and their mobility, that is rate at which excitation was
replaced by inhibition and wise versa. In experimental practice the following four
principle types of higher nervous activity are met:
1) strong unbalanced type, characterized by predominance of excitation over
inhibition;
2) strong well-balanced active type, characterized by high mobility of nerve
processes;
3) strong well-balanced passive type, characterized by low mobility of nerve
processes;
4) weak type, characterized by extremely weak development of both excitation
and inhibition, which cause fatigue and low workability.
TYPE OF NERVOUS SYSTEM
AFTER I.P. PAVLOV

5. The analysis and synthesis of the direct stimuli from surroundings first signal system
performs. This includes impressions, sensations. This functional mechanism is common
in human and animals. In the course of his social development and labor activity second
signal system, which based on using verbal signals, develop. This system includes
perception of words, reading and speech.
The development of the second signaling system was incredibly broadened and changed
quality of higher nervous activity of cerebral hemispheres. Words are signals of other
signals. Man uses verbal signals for everything he perceives through the receptors.
Words are abstraction of reality and allow generalization, processing of surrounding
primary information. This gives the first general human empiricism and finally science,
the instrument of man's higher orientation in the environment and its own self.
So, second signaling system is socially determined. Outside the society, without
association with other people second signaling system is not developed.
THE FIRST AND SECOND
SIGNALING SYSTEM

6. There are two aspects of communication: sensory, involving reading, hearing of speech, and
second, the motor aspect, involving vocalization and its control. It is known, that lesion of
posterior portion of the superior temporal gyrus, which is called Wernicke's area, and is part of
auditory associative cortex, make impossible to the person to interpret the meanings of words.
This Wernicke's area is located in dominant hemisphere, which is usually the left. The process
of speech includes two principle stages of mentation: formation of thoughts to be expressed
and motor control of vocalization. The formation of thoughts is the function of associative
areas in the brain. Wernicke's area in the posterior part of the superior temporal gyrus is most
important for this ability. Broca's speech area lies in prefrontal and premotor facial region in
the left hemisphere. The skilled motor patterns for control of the larynx, lips, mouth,
respiratory system and other accessory muscles of speech are all initiated from this area.
Articulation means movements of mouth, tongue, larynx, vocal cords, and so forth that are
responsible for the intonations, timing, and rapid changes in intensities of the sequential
sounds. The facial and laryngeal regions of the motor cortex activate these muscles, and the
cerebellum, basal ganglia, and sensory cortex all help control the sequences and intensities of
muscle contractions. Transmitters such as dopamine, noradrenaline, serotonin and certain
neuropeptides transmit their signals by what is referred to as slow synaptic transmission. The
resulting change in the function of the nerve cell may last from seconds to hours. This type of
signal transmission is responsible for a number of basal functions in the nervous system and is
of importance for e.g. alertness and mood. Slow synaptic transmission can also control fast
synaptic transmission, which in turn enables e.g. speech, movements and sensory perception.
NERVE SUBSTRATE OF SPEECH

7. The ability of a full-term baby to develop temporary connections of
the first signaling system arises in a few days after the birth.. In the
first six months of life speech sounds mean little to a child. They
are simply stimuli to the auditory analyzer like any other sounds.
The first signs of development of the second signaling system
appear during the second half of the first year of life. If a person or
an object is named and shown to a child many times, reaction to
this name develops.
Later after leaning a few words, a child begins to name objects
itself. Finally, at a later time he uses a stock of words to
communicate with other people.
DEVELOPMENT OF SIGNALING
SYSTEMS IN CHILDREN

8. Main functions of speech are communicative, regulatory, programming and gives
general notion about surroundings. Communicative function permits exchange
of information between people. Such a function is also present in animals, which
use for this aim vocalization of different intensity to warn about danger or
express positive and negative emotions. People use verbal signals for everything
he perceives through the receptors. Words are abstraction of reality and allow
generalization, processing of surrounding primary information.
Verbal instructions may direct human activity, give suggestion about proper
mode of behavior. This is programming function of speech. Programming
function of speech involves emotional component also, which may influence to
emotional status of a person. As limbic system, which controls emotions, has
direct connection with autonomic nervous system.
So speech through emotions may influence to functions of visceral organs.
Physician may use this effect for psychotherapy. It is necessary remember about
jatrogenic disorders also.
FUNCTIONS OF SPEECH

9. Attention is selectiveness of psychical processes or any
kind of mental activity, which helps in getting and
processing the information. There are sensory, motor,
intellectual and emotional forms of attention, depending
to kind of activity of a person.
There are voluntary and involuntary levels of attention.
Involuntary attention is present from the birth of man.
Voluntary attention develops in life course, due to mental
activity, formation of speech function and studying
languages.
ATTENTION AS PSYCHICAL
FUNCTION

10. Involuntary attention is controlled by lower portion of brain
stem and midbrain, where centers of roof reflexes are
locates. Voluntary attention appears as a result of higher
cortical activity in visual, auditory, motor areas and so on.
Lesion of these cortical areas leads to such disturbances in
processing special sensory information as ignore of stimuli
of different modality. Intellectual attention appears because
of function of prefrontal associative cortical area. The limbic
system of the brain is responsible for emotional attention.
PHYSIOLOGICAL MECHANISMS OF
ATTENTION

11. Memory function helps fixing of perceived information, keeping
it in verbal form or as traces of percept stimuli and recognizing of
this information in proper time. Genetic memory keeps
information about body structure and forms of its behavior.
Biological memory is presented in both philogenetic and
ontogenetic forms. The immune memory and psychical memory
for instance, belong to ontogenetic memory.
General characteristics of memory are duration, strength of
keeping the information and exactness of its recognizing. In man
mechanisms of perception and keeping the information are
developed better, comparing to other mammalians.
According to duration is concerned short-time and long-time
memory; in relation to kind of information – sensory and logic.
MEMORY AS PSYCHICAL
FUNCTION

12. The prefrontal association area is essential to carrying out thought processes in
the mind. This presumably results from some of the same capabilities of the
prefrontal cortex that allow it to plan motor activities.
The prefrontal association area is frequently described as important for
elaboration of thoughts to store on a short-term basis “working memories”
that are used to analyze each new thought while it is entering the braine. The
somatic, visual, and auditory association areas all meet one another in the
posterior part of the superior temporal lobe. This area is especially highly
developed in the dominant side of the brain – the left side in almost all right-
handed people.
It plays the greatest single role of any part of cerebral cortex in the higher
comprehensive levels of brain function that we call intelligence. This zone is
also called general interpretative area, the gnostic area, the knowing area,
tertiary association area. It is best known as Wernike’s area in honor of the
neurologist who first describes it.
THINKING PROCESS AS PSYCHICAL
FUNCTION

13. It’s discovered the nervous substrate of long-term
memory is mostly cerebral cortex. The most
important regions are temporal lobes, prefrontal
area and hippocampus. Experimental researches
revealed that some thalamic nuclei and reticular
formation take part in memory function.
Reticular formation gives ascending stimulatory
influences to cerebral cortex, which help in keeping
awake condition of cortex and provides voluntary
attention.
NERVE SUBSTRATE OF MEMORY

14. At the molecular level, the habitation effect in the sensory terminal results
from progressive closure of calcium channels through the presynaptic terminal
membrane.
In case of facilitation, the molecular mechanism is believed to be following.
Facilitated synapse releases serotonin that activates adenylyl cyclase in
postsynaptic cell. Then cyclic AMP activates proteinkinase that then causes
phosphorylation of proteins. This blocks potassium channels for minutes or
even weeks. Lack of potassium causes prolonged action potential in the
presynaptic terminal that leads to activation of calcium pores, allowing
tremendous quantities of calcium ions to enter the sensory terminal. This
causes greatly increased transmitter release, thereby markedly facilitating
synaptic transmission.
Thus in a very indirect way, the associative effect of stimulation the facilitator
neuron at the same time that the sensory neuron is stimulated causes
prolonged increase in excitatory sensitivity of the sensory terminal, and this
establishes the memory trace.
PHYSIOLOGICAL MECHANISMS
OF MEMORY

15. Eric Kandel showed initially that weaker stimuli give rise to a form of short term
memory, which lasts from minutes to hours. The mechanism for this "short term
memory" is that particular ion channels are affected in such a manner that more calcium
ions will enter the nerve terminal. This leads to an increased amount of transmitter
release at the synapse, and thereby to an amplification of the reflex. This change is due
to a phosphorylation of certain ion channel proteins, that is utilizing the molecular
mechanism described by Paul Greengard.
A more powerful and long lasting stimulus will result in a form of long term memory
that can remain for weeks. The stronger stimulus will give rise to increased levels of the
messenger molecule cAMP and thereby protein kinase A. These signals will reach the
cell nucleus and cause a change in a number of proteins in the synapse. The formation
of certain proteins will increase, while others will decrease. The final result is that the
shape of the synapse can increase and thereby create a long lasting increase of synaptic
function.
In contrast to short term memory, long term memory requires that new proteins are
formed. If this synthesis of new proteins is prevented, the long term memory will be
blocked but not the short term memory.
SHORT AND LONG TERM
MEMORY

16. Consciousness is special form of perceiving surroundings and
goal-orientated activity of person with interrelation to
surroundings. Only social life forms consciousness. It involves life
experience of entire society.
This ability of prefrontal areas to keep track of many bits of
information could well explain abilities to prognosticate, do plan
for the future, delay action in response to incoming sensory
signals, consider the consequences of motor actions even before
they are performed, solve complicated mathematical, legal, or
philosophical problems, correlate all avenues of information in
diagnosing rare diseases and control our activities in accord with
moral laws.
CONSCIOUSNESS AND ITS
MECHANISMS

17. Emotions are aspect of higher nervous activity that characterize subjective
attitude of person to various stimuli arousal in surroundings.
Emotional status reflects actual needs of man and helps in its realization.
NOTION “EMOTIONS”

18. According to subjective status there are positive and negative
emotions. Negative emotions are sthenic (aggression, affect) that
stimulate human activity and asthenia (horror, sadness, depression)
that inhibit behaviour. Lower or elementary emotions are caused by
organic needs of man or animal as hanger, thirst and survival, so
on).
In humans even lover emotions undergo to cortical control and are
brining up. Social, historical and cultural customs cause also
formation of higher emotions that regulates public and private
relations in society. Higher emotions appear due to consciousness
and may inhibit lower emotions.
CLASSIFICATION OF EMOTIONS

19. In newborns emotions of horror, anger, pleasure, are
revealed just after birth. Hunger, pain, getting cool, wet
bedclothes cause in newborn child negative emotions with
grimace of suffering and crying. Sudden new sound or
loss equilibrium causes horror and loss of free movement
causes anger.
Final formation of human emotions develops gradually
with maturation of nervous and endocrine regulatory
systems and needs up brining.
APPEARANCE OF EMOTIONS IN
ONTOGENESIS

20. Emotions are important element of human behaviour,
creation of conditioned reflexes and mentation.
Negative emotions give fusty evaluation of current
situation does it useful or not. Mobilizing of efforts helps
then to satisfy current needs of person.
Positive emotions help to put in memory scheme of
behaviour, which was useful and have lead to success.
BIOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE OF
EMOTIONS

21. Motor manifestations of emotions are mimic, gesticulation, body
posture and walk.
Emotional excitation usually is followed by autonomic reactions as
blush, dilation of pupils; increase of arterial pressure, rate of
heartbeat and breathing. Level of catecholamines in blood and 17-
oxycetosteroides in urine rises also.
Positive emotion may activate parasympathetic division of
autonomic nervous system. Severe emotional excitation may result
in visceral disorders because of circulatory disturbances and excess
hormones in blood.
EXTERNAL MANIFESTATIONS OF
EMOTIONS

22. Several limbic structures are particularly concerned with the affective nature of
sensory sensations – that is whether the sensations are pleasant or unpleasant.
The major rew3ard centres have been found to be located along the course of
the medial forebrain bundle, especially in the lateral and ventromedial nuclei of
the hypothalamus.
Less potent reward centres are found in the septum, amygdala, certain areas of
the thalamus, basal ganglia, and extending downward into the basal tegmentum
of the mesencephalon. The most potent areas for punishment and escape
tendencies have been found in the central grey area surrounding the aqueduct
of Sylvius in the mesencephalon and extending upward into the periventricular
zones of the hypothalamus and thalamus.
Less potent punishment areas are found in some locations in the amygdala and
the hippocampus. Electrical recording from the brain show that newly
experienced types of sensory stimuli almost excite areas in the cerebral cortex.
NERVE SUBSTRATE OF
EMOTIONS

23. Biological theory of emotions (P.K. Anochkin) considers that life course includes
two main stages of behavioural act: 1) formation of needs and motivations that
results from negative emotions and 2) satisfaction of needs that leads to positive
emotions it case of complete accordance of image and result of action.
Incomplete compliance of suspected and real result of action cause negative
emotions and continues behavioural act.
Information theory of emotions (P.V. Simonov)considers that emotions reflect
strength human of need and possibility of its satisfaction in current moment. In
absence of needs emotions can’t arise. There is also not emotional excitation, if
getting excess information about mode of satisfaction this need. Lac of
information already causes negative emotions that help to recall to mind life
experience and to gather information about current situation.
THEORIES OF EMOTIONS

24. Emotional excitation is spread in the brain due to variety of
neurotransmitters (noradrenalin, acetylcholine, serotonin, dopamine
and neuropeptides including opioides.
Positive emotions may be explained by revealing catecholamines
and negative emotions, aggression result from production
acetylcholine in the brain. Serotonin inhibits both kinds of
emotions.
Decrease of serotonin in blood is followed by groundless anxiety
and inhibition of noradrenergic transmission results in sadness.
NEUROTRANSMISSION OF
EMOTIONAL EXCITATION

25. According to theory of functional systems (Anochking) there are
such stages of behavioural act:
1) afferent synthesis; 2) taking of decision;
3) acceptor of result of action;
4) efferent synthesis (or programming of action);
5) performing of action;
6) evaluation of final result of action.
Due to converging and processing of both sensory information and
memory traces afferent synthesis in the brain is performed. Taking
of decision is based on afferent synthesis by choosing optimal
variant of action.
STRUCTURE
OF BEHAVIOURAL ACT

26. In the very lowest animals olfactory cortex plays essential roles in determining
whether the animal eats a particular food, whether the smell of a particular
object suggest danger, and whether the odour is sexually inviting, thus making
decisions that are of life-or-death importance. The hippocampus originated as
part of olfactory cortex.
Very early in the evolutionary development of the brain, the hippocampus
presumably becomes a critical decision-making neuronal mechanism,
determining the importance of the incoming sensory signals. Once this critical
decision-making capability had been established, presumably the remainder of
the brain began to call on it for the same decision making. Therefore, if the
hippocampus says that a neuronal signal is important, the information is likely
to be committed to memory.
Thus, a person rapidly become habituated to indifferent stimuli but learns
assiduously any sensory experience that causes either pleasure or pain. It has
been suggested that hippocampus provides the drive that causes translation of
short-term memory into long-term memory.
NEURONAL MECHANISMS OF
BEHAVIOUR

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