2. Topics
① Explain what motivation is.
② Understand some major historical
perspectives on motivation.
③ Describe three contemporary views of
motivation: equity theory, expectancy theory,
and goal-setting theory.
④ Explain several techniques for increasing
employee motivation.
⑤ Understand the types, development, and
uses of teams.
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3. What Is Motivation?
The individual internal process that energizes, directs,
and sustains behavior; the personal “force” that
causes us to behave in a particular way
Morale
• An employee’s feelings about his or her job,
superiors, and about the firm itself
• High morale results from the satisfaction of needs
or as a result of the job and leads to dedication,
loyalty, and the desire to do the job well
• Low morale leads to shoddy work, absenteeism,
and high turnover rates
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4. Historical Perspectives on Motivation
Scientific Management
• The application of scientific principles to
management of work and workers
• Frederick W. Taylor
- Observed workers who “soldiered” or worked slowly
who feared losing their jobs if there were no work
- Job should be broken into separate tasks
- Management determines the best way and the
expected output
- Management chooses and trains the best-suited person
- Management cooperates with workers
- Piece-rate system (pay per unit of output) is based on the
belief that people work only for money
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5. Taylor’s Piece-Rate System
Workers who exceeded their quota were rewarded
by being paid at a higher rate per piece for all the
pieces they produced
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6. Historical Perspectives on Motivation (cont’d)
The Hawthorne Studies
• Objective: to determine the effects of the work
environment on employee productivity
• 1st experiment: productivity increased for both the
experimental and control groups after lighting was
varied in the workplace
• 2nd experiment: workers under a piece-rate system
produced at constant rates
• Hawthorne Experiment
• Conclusions: human factors were responsible
- Workers had a sense of involvement by participating in
the experiment
- Groups influenced output through workers’ desire for acceptance
• Human relations movement
- Employees who are happy and satisfied are motivated to
perform better
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7. Historical Perspectives on Motivation (cont’d)
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
• A sequence of human needs in the order
of their importance
- Physiological needs—survival
- Safety needs—physical and emotional safety
- Social needs—love and affection and a sense of
belonging
- Esteem needs—respect, recognition, and a
sense of our own accomplishment and worth
- Self-actualization needs—to grow and develop
and become all that we are capable of being
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9. Historical Perspectives on Motivation (cont’d)
Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory
• Satisfaction and dissatisfaction are
separate and distinct dimensions
• Motivation factors
- Job factors that increase motivation but whose
absence does not necessarily result in
dissatisfaction
• Hygiene factors
- Job factors that reduce dissatisfaction when
present to an acceptable degree but that do not
necessarily result in higher levels of motivation
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11. Historical Perspectives on Motivation (cont’d)
Douglas McGregor
• Sets of assumptions about managerial attitudes and beliefs
regarding worker behavior
Theory X
• Generally consistent with Taylor’s scientific management
• Employees dislike work and will function only in a controlled
work environment
Theory Y
• Generally consistent with the human relations movement
• Employees accept responsibility and work toward
organizational goals if they will also achieve personal rewards
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13. Historical Perspectives on Motivation (cont’d)
Theory Z
• Some middle ground between Ouchi’s Type
A (American) and Type J (Japanese)
practices is best for American business
• Emphasis is on participative decision
making with a view of the organization as a
family
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15. Historical Perspectives on Motivation (cont’d)
Reinforcement Theory
• Behavior that is rewarded is likely to be repeated,
whereas behavior that is punished is less likely to
recur
- Reinforcement: an action that follows directly from a
particular behavior
- Types of reinforcement
- Positive reinforcement: strengthens desired behavior
by providing a reward
- Negative reinforcement: strengthens desired behavior
by eliminating an undesirable task or situation
- Punishment: an undesired consequence of
undesirable behavior
- Extinction: no response to undesirable behavior in order to
discourage its occurrence
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16. Contemporary Views on Motivation
Equity Theory
• People are motivated to obtain and preserve equitable
treatment for themselves
• Equity: the distribution of rewards in direct proportion to the
contribution of each employee to the organization
• Workers compare their own input-to-outcome (reward) ratios
to their perception of others’
• Workers who perceive an inequity may
- Decrease their inputs
- Try to increase outcome (ask for a raise)
- Try to get the comparison other to increase inputs or receive
decreased outcomes
- Leave the work situation (quit)
- Switch to a different comparison other
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17. Contemporary Views on Motivation (cont’d)
Expectancy Theory (Victor Vroom)
• Motivation depends on how much we want
something and on how likely we think we
are to get it
• Implies that managers must recognize that
- Employees work for a variety of reasons
- The reasons, or expected outcomes, may
change over time
- It is necessary to show employees how they can
attain the outcomes they desire
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19. Contemporary Views on Motivation (cont’d)
Goal-Setting Theory
• Employees are motivated to achieve goals
they and their managers establish together
• Goals should be very specific, moderately
difficult, and ones that the employee will be
committed to achieve
• Rewards should be tied directly to goals
achievement
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20. Key Motivation Techniques
It takes more than a generous salary to
motivate employees. Companies are trying to
motivate employees by satisfying less tangible
needs.
• Simple, low or no cost approaches such as:
- Celebrate birthdays and other important events
- Nominations for a formal award program
- Support flexible work schedules
- Publicly post thank you letters from customers
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21. Key Motivation Techniques (cont’d)
Management by Objectives–managers and employees
collaborate in setting goals, clarify employee roles
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ADVANTAGES
• Motivates employees by
actively involving them
• Improves communication
• Makes employees feel
like an important part of
the organization
• Periodic review
enhances control
DISADVANTAGES
• Doesn’t work if the process
doesn’t begin at the top of
the organization
• Can result in excessive
paperwork
• Some managers assign
goals instead of collaborating
on creating them
• Goals should be quantifiable
22. Key Motivation Techniques (cont’d)
Job enrichment
• Provides employees with more variety and
responsibility in their jobs
Job enlargement
• The expansion of a worker’s assignments to
include additional but similar tasks
Job redesign
• A type of job enrichment in which work is
restructured to cultivate the worker-job
match
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23. Key Motivation Techniques (cont’d)
Behavior modification
• A systematic program of reinforcement to
encourage desirable behavior
Steps in behavior modification
• Identify the target behavior to be changed
• Measure existing levels of the behavior
• Reward employees who exhibit the desired
behavior
• Measure the target behavior to check for
desired change
- If no change, consider changing reward system
- If change has occurred, maintain reinforcement
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24. Key Motivation Techniques (cont’d)
Flextime
• A system in which employees set their own work hours
within employer-determined limits
• Typically, there are two bands of time
- Core time, when all employees are expected to be at work
- Flexible time, when employees may choose whether to be
at work
• Benefits
- Employees’ sense of independence and autonomy is motivating
- Employees with enough time to deal with nonwork issues are
more productive and satisfied
• Drawbacks
- Supervisors’ jobs are complicated by having employees who
come and go at different times
- Employees without flextime may resent coworkers who have it
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25. Key Motivation Techniques (cont’d)
Part-time work
• Permanent employment in which individuals work
less than a standard work week
• Disadvantage: often does not provide the benefits
that come with a full-time position
Job sharing
• An arrangement whereby two people share one
full-time position
• Companies can save on expenses by reducing
benefits and avoiding employee turnover
• Employees gain flexibility but may lose benefits
• Sharing can be difficult if work is not easily divisible
or if two people cannot work well together
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26. Key Motivation Techniques (cont’d)
Telecommuting
• Working at home all the time or for a portion
of the work week
• Advantages
- Increased employee productivity
- Lower real estate and travel costs
- Reduced absenteeism and turnover
- Increased work/life balance and improved morale
- Access to additional labor pools
• Disadvantages
- Feelings of isolation
- Putting in longer hours
- Distractions at home
- Difficulty monitoring productivity
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27. Key Motivation Techniques (cont’d)
Employee empowerment
• Making employees more involved in their jobs by increasing
their participation in decision making
• Management must be involved to set expectations,
communicate standards, institute periodic evaluations,
guarantee follow-up
• Benefits
- Increased job satisfaction
- Improved job performance
- Higher self-esteem
- Increased organizational commitment
• Obstacles
- Management resistance
- Workers’ distrust of management
- Insufficient training
- Poor communication between management and employees
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28. Key Motivation Techniques (cont’d)
Employee ownership
• Employees own the company they work for by
virtue of being stockholders
• Directly reward employees for success
• Benefits
- Considerable employee incentive
- Increased employee involvement and
commitment
• Obstacles
- Problems between management and employees
can still occur
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29. Teams and Teamwork
Teams
• Two or more workers operating as a coordinated unit to
accomplish a specific task or goal
• Types of teams
- Problem-Solving
- Virtuoso
- Self-Managed
- Cross-Functional
- Virtual
• Stages of team development
- Forming
- Storming
- Norming
- Performing
- Adjourning
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31. Teams and Teamwork (cont’d)
Roles within a team
• Task-specialist role
• Socio-emotional role
• Dual role
• Nonparticipant role
Team cohesiveness
• For a team to be successful, members must
learn how to resolve and manage conflict
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32. Teams and Teamwork (cont’d)
Team conflict and how to resolve it
• Middle ground resolution satisfies each
party to some extent
Benefits and limitations of teams
• Reduces turnover and costs, increases
production, quality, customer service, job
satisfaction
• Reorganizing into teams can be stressful
and time consuming with no guarantee it will
develop effectively
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