anatomy and physiology

1. By: Vanessa Jean Patindol

2. Anatomy
Anatomy is the study of form and structure
A N A T O M Y: Anatomy had evolved into several
specialized fields as follows:
1.Gross Anatomy. Often regarded as general anatomy, so far
as it can be studied without the use of the microscope (i.e.
body structures are visible to the naked eye)
2.Microscopic Anatomy. Is the study of structures that require
a microscope to be seen.

3. There are two categories of Microscopic
Anatomy. These are:
2.a. Histology: The science concerned with the minute
structure of cells, tissues and organs in relation to their
function.
2.b. Cytology: The study of the anatomy, physiology,
pathology and chemistry of the cell. Synonymous with
Cellular Biology.

4. 3.Developmental Anatomy. This deals with the study of the
structural changes in an individual from conception through
to old age; includes embryology, foetology and postnatal
development.
4. Pathological Anatomy. It is the study of the structural
changes in the body caused by disease.
5. Radiographic Anatomy. The study of internal structures
using x-ray images.

5. Basic Approaches to the Study of Anatomy
A.Systemic Anatomy. An approach to anatomical study
organized by systems of the body, e.g. the cardiovascular
system.
B.Regional Anatomy. The study of one particular region, part
or division of the body (e.g. the foot or the groin region).
C.Surface Anatomy. The study of the configuration of the
surface of the body, especially in its relation to deeper parts.

9. DIRECTIONAL TERMS
• Anatomical directional terms are used to describe the
location of structures in relation to other structures or
locations in the body. This is particularly useful when
studying anatomy as it provides a common method of
communication that helps to avoid confusion when
identifying structures.
• Anatomical directional terms can also be applied to the
planes of the body. Body planes are used to describe
specific sections or regions of the body.

10. Figure 1. Anatomic position and Directional Terms
Anatomic position refers to a person standing erect with face directed
forward, upper limbs hanging to the sides and palms of the hands facing
forward (Figure 1).
Directional Terms
 Right & left are retained as
directional terms in anatomic
terminology.
 Up is replaced by superior,
 down by inferior,
 front by anterior (means that
which goes before, and ventral
means belly)
 back by posterior (that which
follows, and dorsal means back).
 Proximal - nearest,
 Distal – distant;

11. Figure 2. Directional terms for Quadruped
Cranial is a directional term meaning toward the head.
The shoulder is cranial to the hip; it is closer to the head
than is the hip
Caudal means toward the tail. The rump is caudal to the
loin
The median plane is an imaginary plane passing through
the body so as to divide the body into equal right and
left halves. A beef carcass is split into two halves on the
median plane.
A sagittal plane is any plane parallel to the median
plane. The median plane is sometimes called the
midsagittal plane.
A transverse plane is at right angles to the median plane
and divides the body into cranial and caudal segments
A horizontal plane is at right angles to both the median
plane and transverse planes. The horizontal plane
divides the body into dorsal (upper) and ventral (lower)
segments. If a cow walks into a lake until the water
comes above the chest, the surface of the water is in a
horizontal plane in relation to the cow.
Medial is an adjective meaning close to or toward
the median plane. The heart is medial to the lungs;
it is closer to the median plane than are the lungs.
Lateral is the antonym of medial; it means away
from the median plane. The ribs are lateral to the
lungs, that is, farther from the median plane..
Dorsal means toward or beyond the backbone or
vertebral column. The kidneys are dorsal to the
intestines;
Ventral means away from the vertebral column or
toward the midabdominal wall. The udder is the
most ventral part of the body of a cow.
Proximal means relatively close to a given part,
usually the vertebral column, body, or center of
gravity. Proximal is generally used in reference to an
extremity or limb. The carpus or knee is proximal to
the foot
Distal means farther from the vertebral column, and
like proximal, it is generally used in reference to
portions of an extremity. The hoof is distal to the
carpus or knee.