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Val finnell on Leadership and Motivation
- 1. Leadership andLeadership and MotivationMotivation Val W. Finnell, MD, MPH Col, USAF, MC
- 2. Objectives • Define leadership • Discuss major leadership theories • Compare and contrast leadership styles • Outline major theories of motivation • Describe motivational processes • Discuss perceptions, values, attitudes that affect motivation • Discuss supervisor’s role in reducing conflict • Understand generational attitudes
- 3. Definition of Leadership • A process by which people are imaginatively directed, guided, and influenced in choosing and attaining goals • A process by which one person influences others to do something voluntarily rather than out of fear or coercion. • Not equivalent to management.
- 4. E.F. Hutton ``When E.F. Hutton talks, people listen.''
- 5. Leadership Theories • Early Genetic Theory • Trait, or Attribute, Theory • Contingency Approach • Follower Factor
- 6. Early Genetic Theory • Leadership ability apart from official position • Certain people are born leaders • “Great man” theory of leadership • Emerged from within same prominent families • Class barriers made it impossible for others to enter ranks of leadership
- 7. Trait (Attribute) Theory • 1920s and 1930s • Early genetic theory modified • Leadership ability could be acquired through experience, education, and training • Many attributes listed but could not say which was most essential • Did not differentiate characteristics needed for acquiring leadership from those needed to maintain it
- 8. Contingency Approach • Fiedler (1967); Vroom and Yetton (1973) • Situational factors make it easier for certain persons to acquire positions of leadership • Leadership behavior varies with situation • Interdependence between leadership style and demands of the situation (more later) • No one best way for managers to lead
- 9. Follower Factor • Incorporates the input by groups and followers • It is the follower who perceives the leader and the situation and accepts or rejects leadership • Satisfaction of the followers’ needs is an important aspect
- 10. Leadership Roles • The ideal leader performs both of these roles: • Task Oriented • Emotive
- 11. Leadership Roles • Task Oriented • Role used by a leader to organize and influence the group to achieve specific objectives • Objectives may be imposed from above in formal organizations • May arise spontaneously from the group in more informal organizations
- 12. Leadership Roles • Emotive • Employee centered • Helps members of group gain satisfaction of needs while preparing the way for task performance
- 13. Leadership Styles • Autocratic (Theory X) • Democratic (Theory Y) • Quality-trust (Theory Z) • Free-rein (laissez-faire) • Situational (all, some, or none of above)
- 14. Autocratic (Theory X) The trains will run on time! The trains will run on time! Source: Wikipedia
- 15. Autocratic (Theory X) • Average person dislikes work and will avoid it • Most people have to be forced or threatened by punishment to do a job • Average individual is passive and prefers to be directed
- 16. Democratic (Theory Y) Source: Walt Disney
- 17. Democratic (Theory Y) • Work is natural to people • Self-motivation and inherent satisfaction happens when individual is committed to organizational goals • Commitment is a function of rewards • Individual learns to accept and seek responsibility
- 18. Democratic (Theory Y) • Ability to be creative and innovative in the solution is widely distributed in organization • Intellectual potential of employees is only partially utilized
- 19. Quality-Trust (Theory Z) Source: www.strategy-business.com
- 20. Quality-Trust (Theory Z) • Influenced by Japanese practices in industry • Fosters a trust relationship between workers and supervisors that results in high-quality output because fear of reprisal is absent • Emphasis on teamwork dominates the workplace
- 21. Quality-Trust (Theory Z) Japan • Lifetime employment • Slow evaluation and promotion paths • Nonspecialized careers • Consensual decision making • Collective responsibility • Informal controls • Holistic concern toward firm United States • Short-term employment • Rapid evaluation and promotions • Specialized careers • Individual decision making • Severe disciplinary actions for errors • Explicit controls
- 22. Free-Rein (Laissez-faire) Source: Wikipedia Columbus did not seek a new route to the Indies in response to a majority directive. Columbus did not seek a new route to the Indies in response to a majority directive.
- 23. Free-Rein (Laissez-faire) • People left alone to do their jobs • Manager is a consultant to help out if necessary • Individuals have authority to devise their own solutions • Self-directed approach
- 25. Situational (Choice) • Each of the previous four styles has a place in the practice of management • Leadership style must be adapted to the specific situation • Leaders/managers should be able to use any of the previous four techniques in the appropriate situation
- 26. Theories of Motivation • Content theory • Focuses on the question of what factor or set of factors moves, energizes, and starts the behavior of individuals • Also called need theory • Maslow, Alderfer, Herzberg, McClelland • Process theory • How and why people pick a behavior to accomplish a goal • Vroom and BF Skinner
- 27. Content (Need) Theory Desires are inexhaustible, I vow to end them. -- One of the four Bodhisattva vows Source: www.mccullagh.org
- 29. Alderfer’s ERG Model • Existence – Needs that are material or psychological desires • Relatedness – Needs involving relationships with others • Growth – Encourages a person to be productive and creative. Opportunities for personal development
- 30. Herzberg’s Two-Factor Model • Hygiene factors – Five factors that are environmental • When unacceptable they are noticed. When working well, not noticed. • Company policy, supervision, interpersonal relations, working conditions, salary • Motivation factors – More important • Achievement, recognition, work itself, responsibility, and advancement.
- 31. McClelland’s Achievement Theory • Three needs: • Need for achievement (n Ach) • Personal challenge and accomplishment • Need for affiliation (n Aff) • Human companionship, support, and reassurance • Need for power (n Pow) • Need to influence others and to lead and control them
- 33. Vroom’s Expectancy Model • People act in a certain manner because they anticipate that the behavior will achieve the outcome or goal desired • Degree of effort based on belief that the probability of obtaining goal reach and a reward received (equity consideration) • Three steps: • Assess probability of completing assignment • Evaluate probability of reward • Do the job and hope one gets what is expected
- 34. B.F. Skinner - Reinforcement • It is the reward that reinforces certain behaviors on the part of the employee • Reinforcers can be positive or negative • Punishment discourages behavior • To get people to behave in a certain way, you must reward them every time. • Rewards can be symbolic, monetary, or related to prestige.
- 35. Perceptions, Values, Attitudes The Great Way is not difficult for those who do not pick an choose. When preferences are cast aside the Way stands clear and undisguised. But even slight distinctions made set earth and heaven far apart If you would clearly see the truth, discard opinions pro and con. To founder in dislike and like is nothing but the mind’s disease… Affirming Faith in Mind. Hsin Hsin Ming.
- 36. Perceptions, Values, Attitudes • All human behavior motivated by needs that spring from causes deep within the person • These along with other motives, attitudes, and behaviors form the personality • Managers and leaders must understand how perceptions, values, and attitudes influence people in the workplace.
- 37. Perceptions • Perception used to screen, select, organize, and interpret stimuli • Not unbiased, but from the individual’s perspective (needs, desires, values, disposition, and frame of reference) • Certain stimuli are selected, others screened out. People see what they want to see.
- 38. Values • Different from attitudes, values are broader and more encompassing • Values are closely held normative standards and are frequently defined as ideas about how everyone should feel or behave • Values help shape an individual’s attitudes
- 39. Attitudes • Predisposition to respond in a favorable or unfavorable way to objects, persons, concepts, or whatever. (Mitchell 1982) • Likes and dislikes • Revealed in two ways: • Individual’s expressed statements • Behavior
- 40. Conflict • Conflict generally arises from situations leading to blocked satisfaction, frustration, and anxiety • Solved in five basic ways: • Problem solving behavior (best) • Resignation (give up while on the job) • Detour behavior (self-induced illness) • Retreat (leaving the field) • Aggression (can be passive-aggressive)
- 41. Generational Considerations Source: http://tektrekgamer.files.wordpress.com/2007/04/strekgens.jpg
- 42. Generational Considerations Name Period Values Man. style Silenters 1925-1945 Family values; head of household works, company loyalty X Baby boomers 1946-1964 50% divorce, career advancement, small families X/Y Generation X 1965-1980 Volunteer work, later life marriages, achievement obsessed Y Generation Y 1981-2000 Better family life, conservation, ecology, career driven, fast track Y/Z
- 43. References • Dunn, Rose T. Haimann’s Healthcare Management. 8th ed. Chicago: Health Administration Press. 2007.
Hinweis der Redaktion
- Leadership is defined as a process by which people are imaginatively directed, guided, and influenced in choosing and attaining goals It is a process by which one person influences others to do something voluntarily rather than out of fear or coercion. A person who has formal positional authority and the power to get things done is most definitely a manager, but not necessarily a leader. An individual with no formal authority may be the informal leader of a group. Ideally, the manager should also be a leader.
- You may remember the old commercials where two people are talking and one brings up his broker, “EF Hutton.” As soon as the person mentions the name, everyone in the scene stops and listens. John Maxwell has incorporated this slogan into something he refers to as the Law of E.F. Hutton. Individuals may have titular authority in an organization, but every group has someone who is the real leader. Regardless of titles, when this person talks, everyone listens. Rose T. Dunn would refer to this individual as the informal leader of the group.
- These four ways of understanding leadership theory will briefly be discussed.
- The early genetic theory is the oldest of the leadership theories and viewed leadership as an inheritable trait that one either had or did not have naturally. In reality, class barriers prevented leadership talent from emerging from other parts of society.
- The early genetic theory was modified in the 1920s and 1930s to emphasize traits (attributes) that could presumably be learned for leadership. A laundry list of characteristics were put forth, but it was not possible to elucidate which was the most important. Also, the attributes required for acquiring leadership skills were not separated from those that were needed to maintain it.
- Those who favor the contingency model do not deny the importance of individual characteristics in determining leadership ability. They do emphasize, however, that situational factors play a role in how leaders emerge and lead their organizations. For example, in a political organization, a person with good public speaking ability may emerge and become a leader whereas in another organization a different type of individual would become the leader.
- The follower factor sets up a dynamic relationship between the leader and follower. The leader appears to the followers as the best means available for the satisfaction of their needs, whether emotive or task oriented. This view takes what I believe to be an “emergent” view of leadership. Ideally, the leader emerges from the group he or she represents as the person most capable of meeting their needs. The follower factor also explains, in my opinion, the role of informal leaders within organization where titular authority is held by another individual. If the positional leader cannot fulfill the needs of the followers and represent them effectively, a proxy will be put in his or her place. Even though this person may or may not have a place on the organizational chart, he or she holds the trust of the others. It’s John Maxwell's Law of E.F. Hutton.
- Ideally, the leader fulfills the task oriented and emotive roles well. Schein (1996) put forth the idea of paradoxical leadership when he said that a leader is someone “who can lead and follow, be central and marginal, be hierarchically above and below, be individualistic and a team player, and, above all, be a perpetual learner.”
- Close control, centralized authority, authoritarian practices, and minimum participation of the subordinates in decision making characterize this style.
- Autocratic leadership reflects tight supervision with a high degree of centralization and a narrow span of management. It is truly the “big stick” approach.
- Theory Y operates on the direct opposite set of assumptions as Theory X.
- In Theory Y, authority is delegated as far down as possible and wide span of management is advocated.
- Theory Y emphasizes what is good in human nature.
- Theory Z was popularized by William Ouchi and was a hot-selling book in the 1980s.
- Theory Z arose out of Japanese culture. Quality and trust are inextricably linked.
- Theory Z has much to offer the United States in leadership theory. However, a profound change in attitudes in both employers and employees is necessary as shown in this slide.
- Also known as laissez-faire leadership.
- Situational leadership is like ordering off a Chinese menu.
- Content (Need) theory is based upon the fulfillment of human desires which are acknowledged to be endless.
- The bottom three levels of the pyramid are referred to as deficiency needs while the top parts of the pyramid are termed growth needs. Once an individual has the basic necessities of life satisfied, he or she moves on to seek satisfaction in the higher levels of the pyramid including up to the need of self-actualization.
- Good hygiene factors must be in place, but they are not the primary motivators for employee performance. Instead, the motivating factors that correspond to the higher parts of Maslow’s hierarchy are those things which will provide long-term satisfaction and motivate people.
- According to McClelland, human behavior is controlled by these three needs.
- Process theory is represented by one of the key behaviorists, BF Skinner.
- Vroom’s theory is behavioral in nature. People will act only if they believe their actions will result in a probable achievement of the goal and a future reward.
- Skinner’s theory is complementary to Vroom’s but emphasized the reward.
- Understanding perceptions, values, and attitudes is critical to the leader/manager. Deeply held values and opinions ultimately influence individual perceptions of situations, attitudes, and behaviors.
- Managers need to realize that people perceive things differently based on their individual frame of reference. All the perceptual processes affect a person’s attitudes at work.
- Values are closely held beliefs and inform attitudes.
- Attitudes are learned from prior experience. An infinite number of factors influence an individual’s attitudes in addition to values. Many psychologists believe that these attitudes are formed in the very early years of life and are slow to change. Attitudes do not have to be rational or logical.
- Managers and leaders must work to reduce conflict by encouraging problem-solving behavior and listening to employee complaints in a non-judgmental fashion. The non-directive interview is a good method of handling this.
- Mangers and leaders need to be aware of the different values and expectations of the various generations in the work place. Management styles may differ depending upon the age group of the employee. However, these are generalizations and caution is urged not to apply this advice in a formulistic fashion.