1. Ummara Zulfiqar
Roll No. 18
BS English (4th semester)
Sociolinguistics
Topic 1:
Language Planning
Definition:Language planning refers to various ways of influencing a language to rise
its status and to modify its structure and function (Baker and Jones, 1998). It is an
intervention intended to influence a language or language use. Many linguists have
defined language planning. Some of its definitions are as following;
* "Language planning is an government authorized, longterm, sustained and
conscious effort to alter a language's function in society for the purpose of
solving communication problem" Weinstein(1980, p.56)
* "Language planning includes delibrate efforts to influence the behaviour
of others with respect to the acquisition, structure, or functional allocation
of their language codes." Cooper (1989)
* "Language planning involvs the creation and implementation of an official
policy about how the languages and linguistic varieties of a country are to
be used." David Crystal (1996, p.366)
Birth of Language Planning:
* Language planning was first put forward by Uriel Weinrich, in 1997, at a seminar
held in Columbia University, the U.S.
* In the literature concerned with "language planning", the American Norwegian
sociolinguist Einar Haugen is often mentioned as the person who gave birth to
the concept. In the article "Language PLanning In the Modern Norway"(1959),
Haugen introduced and attempted to define the concept.
* In 1950-60's many countries got independent and a conflict about national
language aroused in all the countries. So in 1960's study of language planning

2. started in sociolinguistics.
Language Planning Goals: Some goals and purposes of language planning are as
following;
i. Preventing language death
ii. Reversing language shift
iii. To reform and revitalize a language
iv. To modernize and standerdize a language
v. To spread and strengthen the language communication
vi. To attain national unity and harmony
vii. To attain social, political and economic bnefits
Process of Language Planning: Language planning is carried out by government
departments and agencies, beaurocrates and upper class of the society, involving
lexicographers and linguists. The process of language planning includes four steps
which are as following:
viii. Selection
ix. Codification
x. Elaboration of function
xi. Acceptance
Selection: In this step a particular language or variety of language is selected as a
norm for official, educational, and other purposes. It is selected by considering such
factors as formality, social class, regional dialect, and previous literary use.
Codification: The chosen language needs to be developed to meet the demands
placed upon it as a medium of national or international communication. In this step the
selected language is codified in sense of pronounciation, grammar and vocabulary to
provide a set of norms for standard use.
Elaboration of Function: In this step the function of the selected language or variety of
language is elaborated by using it in all the functions associated with
government(parliament, law courts etc), in literary writings, in academic writings, and in
media.
Acceptance: People are made ready and they accept the selected language or variety

3. of language as national language or standard language of the society.
Types of Language Planning: Following are the types of language planning.
xii. Status Planning
xiii. Corpus Planning
xiv. Acquisition Planning
Status Planning: Status planning changes the function of a language or a variety of
language and the rights of those who use it. Ronald Wardhaugh(1998, p.347).
According to David Crystal(1997, p.366), changes, in status planning, are proposed in
the way a language/variety is to be used in society. It is concerned with whether the
social status of a language should be lowered or raised. It also reflects the status of the
speakers of a language. It includes the allocation of languages or language varieties to
given functions;
* Medium of instruction
* Officiel language
* Vehicle of mass communication
* Language of international communication , etc.
Corpus Planning: Corpus planning seeks to develop a variety of language or a
language, usually to standardize it, that is, to provide it with the means for serving every
possible language function in society. It may involve such matters as development of
orthography, new sources of vocabulary, dictionary and literature so that the language
may extend its use into such areas as government, education and trade. According to
David Crystal(1997, p.366), changes, in corpus planning, are introduced into the
structure of a language/variety-spelling, pronounciation, grammar or vocabulary. It
includes
* Reforming spelling
* Adopting a new script
* The creation of new forms
* The modification of old ones, or
* The selection from alternative forms in a spoken or written code
Acquisition Planning: This type was given by Kenneth Ives. It refers to organized

4. efforts to promote the learning of a language. It is directed towards increasing the
number of users-speakers, listeners, writers, readers- of a language.
Results of Language Planning: As a result of language planning, a language can
attain one of the following statuses;
* Official
* Joint official
* Regional official
* Promoted language
* Tolerated language
* Discouraged language, etc.
Ideologies of Language Planning: Language planning always involve some
ideologies. Cobarrubias(1983) has described four typical ideologies that may motivate
actual decision making in language planning in a particular society:
xv. Linguistic Assimilation
xvi. Linguistic Pluralism
xvii. Vernacularization
xviii. Internationalism
Linguistic Assimilation: It is the belief that everyone, regardless of origin, should learn
the dominant language of the society. For example France applied this policy(French
only) to various people within its borders.
Linguistic Pluralism: It is the recognition of more than one language, also takes a
variety of forms. It can be territorially or individually based or there may be some
combination of the two. For example in countries like Belgium, Canada and Switzerland.
Vernacularization: It means the restoration or elaboration of an indigenous language
and its adoptation as an official language. For example Hebrew in Israel and Tagalog(or
Philipino) in the Phillippines.
Internationalism: It means the adoption of a non-indigenous language of wider
communication either as an official language or for such purposes, as education or
trade. For example English in Singapore, India and Pakistan.
Key Issues: There are two basic issues which emerge in language planning.

5. xix. Language Rights
xx. Right Kind of Data
Language Rights: It means the right of individuals to use their own language with other
members of their linguistic group. They evolve from general human rights, in particular:
non-discrimination, freedom of expression, right to private life, and the right of a
linguistic minority to use their language with other members of their community. They
include, among others, the right of one's own language in legal, administrative, and
judicial acts, education and media in a language understood and freely chosen by those
concerned. All this is kept in view while planning a language.
Right Kind of Data: While planning a language, the right kind of data of selected
language-i.e grammar, words, meanings, vocabulary, etc- should be available.
Bibliography:
* class notes
* http://en.Wikipedia.org
* Sapcham.blogpost.com
* www.slideshare.net
* http://www.sjsu.edu
* http://www.oocities.org
Topic 2:

6. Endangered Languages
Definition: An endangered language is a language that is at risk of falling out of use as its
speakers die out or shift to speaking another language. It is a language that is likely to become
extinct in the near future. A definition can be written as:
"A language is classified as endangered if there is an imminent risk of it no longer be
spoken."
Reasons or Factors of Language Endangerment: A language becomes endangered
because of the following reasons:
xxi. Shift to another language
xxii. Hesitation of the speakers to speak their own language
xxiii. Ceasing of intergenerational transmission of language
xxiv. Physical loss of speakers(due to genocide, natural disasters, or similar causes)
xxv. Disintegretion language community(due to displacement, assimilation into the
dominant population, or economic concerns)
xxvi. Homogenizing effects of mainstream media(in the form of dominant language
television, radio and print media)
xxvii. Forced abandonment of a language(through overt supperession, often
accompained by the institution of dominant language schools)
xxviii. War
xxix. Political repression
Types of Language Endangerment: There are two ways by which a language
becomes endangered:
xxx. Many languages are endangered because there has been a measurable decline
in the percentage of children who learn to speak them over the course of two or
more generations. The trajectory of the decline in the number of people learning
these languages is such that at some point intergenerational transmission will
cease. At that point a language is considered Moribund.
xxxi. A language that has a small number of speakers overall becomes endangered.
Though many such languages are thriving under the social conditions that
currently volt, their limited speaker base render them susceptible to rapid

7. language lose.
Classification of Endangered Languages: Languages are classified into following
types on basis of their degree of vitality:
xxxii. Threatened Languages: These are those languages for which longterm survival
is a possibility but which are vulnerable to rapid language loss. The vulnerability
may stem from a number of factors e.g. a small population of speakers or social
transformations that decrease the necessity for using the language in daily
activities.
xxxiii. Declining Languages: These are those languages that are evincing a steady
erosion to their speaker base, primarily due to the fact that fewer and fewer
children learn these languages at home.
xxxiv. Moribund Languages: Those languages that are no longer being learnt by
children as their first language are called moribund languages.
xxxv. Extinct Languages: those languages that have no speakers left are called
extinct languages.
Levels of endangerment in languages: UNESCO distinguishes following levels of
endangerment in languages, based on intergenerational transfer.
xxxvi. Vulnerable: Most children speak the language, bul it may be restricted to certain
domains(e.g. home).
xxxvii. Definitely Endangered: Children no longer learn the language as mother tongue
in the home.
xxxviii. Severly Endangered: Language is spoken by grandparents and older
generation; while the parent generation may understand it, they do not speak it to
children or among themselves.
xxxix. Critically Endangered: The youngest speakers are grandparents and older, and
they speak the language partially and infrequently.
xl. Extinct: There are no speakers left.
Number of Endangered Languages: There are about 6000 to 7000 languages on
earth today, about half of them have fewer than about 3000 speakers. Experts predict
that even in a conservative scenario, about half of today's languages will become extinct
within the next fifty to one hundred years. There are approximately 3000 currently
endangered languages. SIL Ethnologue(2005) has listed 473 out of 6909 living
languages as nearly extinct, indicating cases where only a few speakers are still living.

8. According to UNESCO, there are about 199 languages which have only 10 or less
speakers left.
Philologists say that there are over 300 languages spoken in Pakistan today and
according to UNESCO's report about 27 Pakistani languages including Brahvi, Balti,
Mayan, Porak, Kalasha etc. are facing serious threat to be extinct.
Bibliography:
* Class notes
* http://en.wikipedia.org
* file:///D:/Sociolinguistics/what%is%an%endangered%language%linguistic
%society%of%america.html
* http://www.swarthmore.edu
* www.theguardian.com
* Blog.travel-culture.com
* www.uh.edu