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Session 1 - LEGAL

TORTS 1

What is you course of action if your neighbour empties his daily trash bin just in front of your house?

a) You live by Newton’s third law.
b) You live by the principle of Gandhigiri
c) You live by ignoring your neighbour.
d) You live by seeking to the law of the land.

Do you even know that option D is available at your disposal?

At the end of this session you shall not only know about your legal rights but you shall also play the
judge for such tort feasors!!

Torts are civil wrongs for which the injured party can seek compensation or unliquidated damages.

To understand the definition let us look at the ingredients.
TORT comes from the
1) Civil Wrong Latin word Tortum which
2) Injured means Twisted. So Law
3) Damages of Torts, basically deals
with twisted behaviour!

Plaintiff and Defendant: Plaintiff is the party who files the lawsuit and defendant is the party
who is charged with commitment of tort. In simpler words, plaintiff is the one who alleges
some wrong doing against him by the defendant and hence files the complaint against the
defendant and seeks compensation.

1. Civil Wrong:

Civil wrongs are those wrong actions that are not recognized by the state as being criminal in nature.
Bit Confused? Let us understand the difference between Civil and Criminal Wrong.

 Public Vs Private wrong: A criminal wrong is a wrong which is against the public or society
(even though victims can be few or even a single person) and civil wrong is the violation of
private or individual’s right.
 Initiating the legal proceedings: Since criminal wrong is against the public, anyone from
public even police can initiate the prosecution. However, in case of civil wrong only the
affected party (plaintiff) can file the lawsuit.

Criminal wrongs are more serious in nature than civil wrongs. Murder, Theft, Rape etc. are
crimes of serious nature. Although, victim could be few or one, anyone from the society could
initiate the legal proceedings against the wrong doer because if the wrong doer is not stopped
and punished then he might commit another such crime and is a threat to the entire society.

 Redressal: In criminal wrong the guilty either has to compensate the victim or is punished by
law and sometimes both follows. However, in case of civil wrong the plaintiff is rewarded
compensation by the defendant and sometimes court orders injunction to the defendant.

Injunction: A court order by which an individual is required to perform, or is
restrained from performing, a particular act.

2. Injury:
To understand the meaning of injury more clearly we need to understand the difference
between injury and damage. Injury is a harm or infringement of any right for which one can
seek legal remedy. Damage is simply a loss and which may result in injury. From now
whenever we speak of injury it implies legal injury.

Example of Injury (Legal Injury): If someone trespasses upon your property he can be held
responsible, even if his trespass did not cause you any harm because you enjoy a legal right
to protect the bounds of your property. Similarly if someone slaps you he can be held liable
even if you do not suffer any physical injury because you have the right to protect your body.
However, if you suffer some financial loss in business due to competitive market then there is
no legal right to protect you from financial loss and law will not hold your competitors
responsible for your loss.

3. Unliquidated Damages:
Damage simply means compensation which defendant has to pay to the plaintiff in case of
some tort. Unliquidated damages are those damages which are not fixed in nature and vary
from case to case. Liquidated damages are those which are fixed in nature and will remain
same in all circumstances.

A negligently throws a stone at the crowd and injures two people X & Y. It also happens so
that both X & Y sustain similar injury. X happens to be the sole earning member of the
family and Y is a student and has no dependants. Due to injury X and Y both had to take
rest for 7 days. While deciding the compensation (damages) to be paid by A, the judge may
look into several factors like loss of pay in case of X and suffering of the dependents of X
due to his loss of pay and can ask A to pay a greater amount to X than to Y. So even though
both X & Y suffered to same extent physically the living condition of X can prompt the judge
to award him more compensation. So, it means unliquidated damages require
consideration on several factors. On the other hand if A, B &C travel without ticket in a
train from Delhi to Mumbai then the fine each one has to pay is same irrespective of their
personal


Torts in India:

 Law of Torts is not codified in India. Tort law is a relatively young area of law in India, apart
from referring to local judicial precedents; courts have readily referred to case law from
other common law jurisdictions.
 People do not resort to Law of Torts in India because of the lack of awareness about the legal
rights. Also, contesting a court case in India is often tedious process and is another reason
for people not taking tort claims to court.

When Is Tort Committed?

For commission of Tort two conditions are necessary and sufficient:

 The performance or omission of an act on part of defendant. It means a person has
performed some act which he was not suppose to, for example, trespassing or the person
has omitted to do an act which he was suppose to, for example, not maintain the
windowpanes properly.
 The performance or omission should result in legal injury. Legal injury is committed when a
person legal right is infringed. As explained before legal injury may or may not result in any
harm or damage.

- Damnum Sine Injuria (Damage without Injury ) – It means
there is a harm but no legal injury. QUICK RECAP
- Injuria Sine Damnum ( Injury without Damage ) – It means
Injury – Violation of right
there is injury but no harm.
Damage – Harm
Pulse Check
Damages - Compensation
When is tort committed?
a) Damnum Sine Injuria b) Injuria Sine Damnum
c) In both the cases d) In none of the above
cases

Defences In Torts

Defence is an argument which is presented by the defendant. There can be numerous kinds of
defences but few are common and are used widely. It is to be noted that defences are just the
arguments used by defendant against the allegations made. We will discuss few common defences
in Torts:

1) Volenti Non Fit Injuria: Volenti non fit injuria is a latin phrase meaning ‘to one who
volunteers, no harm is done'. This defence absolves defendant of all the liabilities. If plaintiff
voluntarily agrees for an act being completely aware about the risk involved then any the
defendant can use VNFI as a defence if plaintiff suffers some injury on account of the act.


The requirements of the defence are thus:

a. Voluntary Agreement – Plaintiff should have wishfully done the act. If theplaintiff is not
in a position to exercise free choice, the defence will not succeed. This element is most
commonly seen in relation to employment relationships.
b. Knowledge -. It means that plaintiff is aware of and has agreed to bear the consequences
of the risk associated with the act.

a. Bharat goes to watch a cricket match. During the match batsman hits the ball for a six and
ball lands up on Bharat’s head thus injuring him. Bharat sues the batsman and seeks
compensation.
b. Bharat goes to watch a cricket match. During the match, due to short circuit fire breaks
out and Bharat sustains injury. Bharat sues the stadium authorities and seeks
compensation.

In a. Bharat will not succeed because he voluntarily went to watch the match and it is
common knowledge that there is a chance (although minor) of one getting injured by the ball.
Also it is understood that when one goes to watch a match or to do any activity wilfully he is
ready to bear any consequences pertaining to sports or that activity and hence in this case
batsman can successfully use VNFI as a defence.

In b. Bharat will succeed because although he voluntarily went to watch the match and it is
also a common knowledge that there is a chance (although minor) of fire or stampede one
never agrees to bear the consequences pertaining to such issues. So unless the short circuit
or stampede is due to Act of God stadium authorities cannot use defence of VNFI.

All ingredients holding good defence of VNFI will not work in following cases

Master –Servant Relationship – Because it is assumed that servant does not do act wilfully

Rescue Cases- Because the rescuer does the act for greater good..

2. Act of Self Defence: If the Defendant uses the force which is necessary for self-defence, he will
not be liable for the harm caused thereby. Two important ingredients are:

a. Use of force which is necessary – One cannot use a sword for pin and the force used in act of self
defence should be proportionate and reasonable.

b. Justification for use of force – It means the threat should be imminent. Reasonable according
to a normal individual
of a society and not
according to the wrong
doer.

a) Ram and Ravana are two childhood enemy. One fine morning Ram decides to teach
Ravana lesson. Ram hurls abuses at Ravana and swirls his hockey stick to hit Ravana.
Ravana takes out pistol and shoots at Ram thus killing him. Ravana uses act of self
defence.
b) Ram and Ravana are two childhood enemy. One fine morning Ram says to Ravana ‘Watch
out of tomorrow, it is going to be your last day’. Ravana retaliates and makes the same
day as Ram’s last day. Ravana uses act of self defence.
c) Ram and Ravana are two childhood enemy. Ram with his gang hits Ravana badly last
Tuesday. Ravana seething with revenge decides to settle score with Ram and kills him on
Friday. Ravana uses act of self defence.

In a) Ravana cannot use act of self defence because the force which he used was not
proportionate. In b) Ravana cannot use act of self defence because the danger to him was not
immediate. In c) Ravana cannot use act of self defence because this defence does not work in
case of revenge.

3. Inevitable accident: An unexpected and unavoidable injury that happened in spite of
reasonable care taken by the Defendant. The ingredients defence are:

a) Unexpected and Unavoidable: If something is expected then it could be avoided.
b) Reasonable care: Defendant should have taken reasonable care despite which
something unexpected and hence unavoidable take place.

a) Chhabbisgarh is a newly formed state of Khalistan. The state is naxilite affected and the
rural and interior areas regularly witness the gory violence between police and naxalites
often killing innocent villagers. Hoshpur, the capital has never witnessed any naxalite attack
but naxals have attacked a police station not far from the Hoshpur recently. It happens that
naxals attack Hoshpur and kills several innocent people. The civil society of Hoshpur sues
the state government and state government seeks the defence of Inevitable accident.

State government cannot use the defence of inevitable accident because under given
circumstances anyone could expect the naxalite attack in the capital and it was the duty of
authorities to take reasonable care.

4. Act of God: This is also a kind of inevitable accident except instead of human intervention
some natural forces of extraordinary proportions are involved. The important ingredients
for this defence are:
a) Natural Forces: There should not be any human intervention involved. If there is any human
hand involved then it is not act of God although it may classify as inevitable accident.


b) Extraordinary Proportions: This involves the occurrence of natural phenomenon which has
never been experienced before. A phenomenon which is Extraordinary for one place could
be ordinary for other.

a) Chhabbisgarh is a newly formed state of Khalistan. The state has moderate
climate and has never witnessed flood or famine. However, one year heavy
monsoon lashes the state resulting in continuous torrential rainfall. The rainfall
results in flood causing loss of life and property. The civil society sues the state
government and state government seeks the defence of Act of God.

Yes, the state government can use this defence because as mentioned the history of the
place suggest that it has never witnessed such heavy rainfalls resulting in flood. The
event is extraordinary and hence unavoidable.

Pulse Check

What will be your answer if the above mentioned event takes
place in the city of Mumbai which has a history of heavy rains?
Can Act of God be used as a defence?

5. Plaintiff is the wrong doer: In such cases it is plaintiff who does some illegal act and suffers
injury. The important ingredients for this defence are:
a. Plaintiff was performing some illegal act
b. Injury inflicted by the defendant

a. Ram trespasses into Ravana’s house. Ravana’s pet dog severely injures Ram.
Ram sues Ravana. Ravana seeks defence of plaintiff is the wrong doer.

Yes, Ravana can seek the defence provided that he has not let the dog loose on
Ram without any warning. Note that defendant cannot do anything just
because the plaintiff is wrongdoer.

6. Necessity: If a person commits an act causing damage in order to prevent a greater harm, he
is not liable. Important ingredients for this defence:
a. Act caused injury
b. Act was done to prevent greater harm

a. Ram trespasses into Ravana’s house get water from his well as Laxman was
burning in fire. . Ravana sues Ram for trespassing.

Ram can use the defence of necessity because he did the act (though wrong) to
prevent greater harm.

7. Statutory Authority: This defence is used by government or legislature bodies when while
performing any authorized act someone is injured. It should be noted that act resulting in
injury should only be an authorized act.

A statutory authority is a body set up by law which is authorised
to enforce legislation on behalf of the relevant country or state.

The municipal corporation decides to lay the optical fiber cables in the city. After the
entire days work the laborers forget to cordon off or fill up the road dug to lay the
cables. Ram met an accident due to this and he sues the municipal corporation.

Municipal Corporation was doing an authorized act but there was negligence on their
part and so they cannot use the defence of statutory authority. Note that this defence
will not work if there is any negligence on part of the authorities.

PRACTICE TEST

[Every session will have a practice test immediately following the session.
These 150 session-based-tests will be in addition to 8 Full Length Mocks. The
analysis of these tests (session based as well as Full Length Mocks) will be
state-of-the-art, providing computer generated feedback on your strengths
and weaknesses]
1) Principle: A person has no remedy against an injury caused by an act to which he has
voluntarily consented (VNFI).

Facts: A building of a renowned hotel caught fire due to short circuit. Nitin, a bystander, saw
this and jumped into the well in order to save Rohan, a child who was stranded inside the
building. In trying to save Rohan, Nitin sustained injuries. Nitin afterwards claim compensation
from the hotel management. Hotel Management seeks to use principle of VNFI.

a) Hotel Management can successfully use the defence of VNFI.
b) Hotel Management was negligent because of which short circuit happened and so they are
entitled to compensate Nitin.
c) Nitin should seek compensation from Rohan’s parent and not Hotel Management.
d) Hotel Management cannot use the defence of VNFI as Nitin was acting to rescue a life and
in such cases the principle of VNFI do not apply.

2) Principle: A person has no remedy against an injury caused by an act to which he has
voluntarily consented (VNFI).


Explanation: Voluntarily consent is considered for the actions or consequences which one can
reasonably foresee.

Facts: Gita underwent a surgery for removal of stones in her kidney. Gita signed a document
stating that she acknowledges the risk associated with the operation and so will bear the
consequences accordingly. The Surgeon Amit, who performed the surgery, left a piece of
gauze in the abdominal cavity during the operation. Geeta developed infection and had to
undergo second operation. She sues Amit for compensation. Amit seeks defence of VNFI.

a) It was Geeta who voluntarily consented by signing the document and so she cannot seek
any compensation
b) Although, Geeta consented to the risk associated with the operation she never agreed to
bear consequences arsing out of the carelessness of the surgeon which cannot be
reasonably foreseen. And so Surgeon cannot use VNFI as a defence.
c) Amit will have to compensate Geeta.
d) None of the above

3) Principle: If plaintiff himself is the wrong does then there is no legal remedy available to him.
However, merely because plaintiff is the wrong doer defendant cannot take extend his
measures to any proportion.

Facts: Poisonous berries were grown in the private garden of Mr. Dar. Shrub bearing the
berries was neither fenced nor a notice regarding its poisonous character was displayed.
Children often use to play in the adjacent ground and once it so happened that few
mischievous children trespassed into Mr. Dar’s garden. Berries in the garden looked like
cherries. A child, aged seven, ate those berries and died. Would Mr. Dar be held liable for
the tort of negligence?

a) No, it was the negligence of child’s parents due to which child consumed the berries
b) No, since Mr. Dar can do anything in his private garden.
c) Yes, Mr. Dar ought to have foreseen that such incident is possible. Merely because it is
his private garden he cannot do anything. Yes, although the child was himself a
wrongdoer but Mr. Dar’s measure was also disproportionate.
d) No, the child himself was a wrong doer.

4) Principle: An act of good is an operation of natural forces so unexpected that no human
foresight or skill could reasonably be expected to anticipate it.

Facts: The New Friends Association was celebrating its 10th Anniversary and arranged for a
concert by a leading musical group. The event was organized in one of the best auditoriums
and all the tickets were sold out. On the day of the event, an earthquake destroyed many
building including the auditorium. People who had purchased the tickets asked for refund
from the New Friends Association as the show could not take place.

a) The New Friends Association must refund the cost of tickets.


b) The management of the auditorium must refund the cost of the tickets
c) The New Friends Association or anyone else need not refund the cost of tickets as it is an
act of God
d) The ticket holders can demand the show to be organized at a later point of time.

5) Facts: Hanuman Stores sent certain items in a horse carriage to a customer's house, which
happened to be by the side of a main road and near a school zone. The driver of the carriage
delivered the items to the customers and went inside the house to collect the receipt, leaving
the carriage unattended on the road. Some naughty children of nearby school threw stones at
the horses. The horses ran in confusion and they were about to run over an old woman. A
traffic police, at great risk to his life, somehow seized the horses and stopped the carriage. He
suffered serious personal injuries in the process. The policeman and the old woman seeks
compensation from Hanuman Stores.

Principles:
1. Whoever is under a duty of care to another shall be liable for any injury to the latter
directly resulting from the breach of that duty.
(2) Injury suffered voluntarily does not constitute legal injury.

a) Hanuman Stores is not liable, because they do not owe a duty of care to the old
woman or policeman
b) Hanuman Stores is not liable because some naughty children scared away their horses
c) The policeman cannot succeed, because he suffered injury voluntarily
d) None of the above

6) Principle: Every person has a right to defend his own person, property or possession against an
immediate harm, and to that end, may use reasonable amount of force.

Facts : - Mr. Kaul was passing by Mrs. Mattoo's house. At that time, Mrs. Mattoo's dog ran
out and bit Mr. Kaul's overcoat. Mr. Kaul turned around and raised the pistol he was carrying
in the pocket of his overcoat. The dog ran away, and Mr. Kaul shot the dog as it was running
away. Mr. Kaul knew that the dog had attacked so many other people in that locality of
Jammu. Mrs. Mattoo claims that her dog was of a rare breed and it was worth Rs.5000/-.
She is planning to bring a legal action against Mr. Kaul for compensation.

a) She will succeed in getting compensation from Mr. Kaul because he killed the dog
which was not actually attacking him at the time of shooting.
b) She will not succeed because Mr. Kaul was justified in shooting the dog to protect
himself.
c) She will not succeed because Mr. Kaul took the action to protect himself as well as many
other members of public in future.

7) 7. Principle: Tort is said to arise only when there is legal injury.

Facts: A group of transporters joined hands and offered reduced rates of transportation and
lucky draw in order to induce customers to transport goods only through them. In
consequence of this, a company B which was kept out of the combination suffered trade


losses. B sues for damages alleging that defendants maliciously formed the group to kick him
out of the trade.

a) No, B cannot claim any damages that there is no legal injury.
b) Yes, B can claim damages from the defendants because their act was out of malice.
c) No, B cannot claim any damages as he should have been smart enough to come up with
attractive schemes for the customers.
d) Yes, B seek the remedy under competition protection law.

8) Principle: An act of God is an operation of natural forces so unexpected that no human
foresight or skill could reasonably be expected to anticipate it.

Facts: Roberts's airplane was parked approximately 200 feet from the Mona’s plane. Mona
failed to secure her plane by tying it down or setting the brakes. A strong windstorm caused
Mona’s plane to roll into the Robert’s plane. Robert sues Mona for the damages.

a) Robert cannot get the compensation as it was an act of God.
b) Robert can get the compensation as Mona negligently parked her plane with no
precautionary measures.
c) It was Robert who parked his plane later and he should have maintained proper
distance.
d) None of the above.

SOLUTIONS:

1) Answer a. If you look at the facts presented all the ingredients of the principle are satisfied.
Nitin’s although act was although humanitarian was voluntary and he knew the risk
associated with jumping to a building caught in fire. And so Hotel Management can claim
VNFI as a defence. Remember that normally VNFI does not apply in rescue cases but in the
given principle nothing has been mentioned about rescue cases and so we will not
consider anything while deciding the answer. B) cannot be the answer as again my principle
does not talk about negligence and also from facts we cannot gather if at all there was
negligence on the Hotel Management’s part.
2) Answer b. It is easy as the option is in complete accord with the given principle and the
explanation. In VNFI it also important that someone who is injured should have voluntarily
given agreement for that injury only.
3) Answer c. The principle talks that defendant cannot take disproportionate measure simply
because the plaintiff wrong doer. In this case Mr. Dar should have had some precautionary
measures in place.
4) Answer c. In any reasoning question it is very important for the answer to have elements of
principle in it. Only option c has the principle in it. All others answer choice are not in
accordance with the principle.


5) Answer d. The first thing to establish is whether Hanuman store owed duty of care towards
old woman Yes they owed duty of care not only towards old woman but also towards every
individual present in the road side and so horses should not have been left unattended. It
does not matter then that the horses were provoked by some children. Hanuman stores
was liable towards old woman. Policeman will succeed as he owed duty of care towards the
woman.
6) Answer a. Mr. Kaul did not act in self defence here as he shot the dog when it was running
away and there was no imminent danger to Mr. Kaul.
7) Answer a. The principle says that Tort only arises if there is any legal injury. But in this case
company B has suffered financial losses and financial losses cannot be considered as legal
injury. Malice and intention becomes irrelevant in such tort cases. D) is not the answer
because principle does not talk about the competition protection law. C) is also not in
accordance with the principle
8) Answer b. The principle has two ingredients a) unexpected event by natural forces. b) no
reasonable foresight could have prevented the action. After reading the facts it is clear that
the strong windstorm can be attributed to act of God. But it is also clear that Mona didn’t
apply the reasonable foresight and skill while parking her plane so she cannot use the
defence of Act of God. Also it does not matter who was the first to park the plane as
principle does not give any preference in that regard.


Session 2 - ENGLISH
Topic - Subject verb agreement

Each of the following sentences is divided into four parts. One of the parts may contain a
mistake. Identify that part and shade the appropriate oval. (NLSUI 2007)

1. Five prototype (a) / of each device(b) / are now being tested(c) / In hospitals in South
Africa. (d)

2. Either the chairman (a)/ of the cricket board (b)/ or the players (c)/ is lying (d).

Subject verb agreement is among the most commonly tested topics in grammar. The topic is simple
if few simple rules are kept in mind.

The fundamental concept states that singular subject takes a singular verb, while a plural subject
takes plural verb.

Some Points to remember:

- The trick is in knowing whether the subject is singular or plural. The next trick is
recognizing a singular or plural verb.
- Verbs do not form their plural by adding a‘s’ as nouns do. To determine which verb is
singular and which one is plural, think of which verb you would use with ‘he’ or ‘she’ and
which verb you would use with ‘they’.
- The verb agrees with the subject and not with the noun. The people who listen to music --
-- few. (is/are). Here right answer is are because subject is people and verb has to agree
with subject and not with noun which is music here.
-

Let us now look at a few important rules to be followed

Rule 1: The indefinite pronouns anyone, everyone, someone, noone, nobody, each are always
singular and, therefore, require singular verbs.

- Everyone selected to serve on this jury _____ to be willing to give up a lot of time.
(has/have).
The correct answer is ‘has’ because everyone is a singular subject referring to each individual.
- Each of the boys ------- dancing. (is/are).
The correct answer is ‘is’. Look at the subject which is ‘each boy’ and not ‘boys’

Some indefinite pronouns — such as all, some — are singular or plural depending on what they're
referring to i.e countable or uncountable noun.

- Some of the toys are missing.
- Some of the milk is gone


Rule 2: Two singular subjects connected by either/or or neither/nor or either or neither
requires a singular verb.

- Neither Ram nor Rahim ------ going to play for india(is/are)
- Either Ram or Rahim --------- helping today with stage decoration. (is/ are)
- Either ------- fine with me(is/are)
In all of the above the subject is singular and hence the verb will take singular form ‘is’

Rule 3: Two singular subjects connected by ‘or’ will always take singular verb.

- Football or cricket -------- my favourite game. (is/are)
The usage of ‘or’ signifies that any one of the two is true and hence the verb will take
singular form ‘is’

Rule 4: When a singular subject is connected by ‘or’ or ‘nor’ to a plural subject, the verb takes
form of the subject to which it is closer.

- The book or the pens ------- in the bag. (was/were)
- The pens or the book ----------in the bag. (was/were)
The answer to first example is ‘were’ because verb has to placed closer to a plural subject
‘pens’. In the second example though the meaning remains same the verb assumes singular
form because of singular subject near it.

Rule 5: A plural rule verb is used with two or more subject connected by ‘and’.

- Rahul -------- Anjali are best friend.(is/are)
The answer is ‘are’ because two subjects are connected by ‘and’.

Rule 6: Phrases such as together with, as well as, and along with are not the same as and. The
phrase introduced by as well as or along with will modify the earlier subject, but it does
not compound the subjects (as the word and would do) and hence the verb used should be
singular.

- The teacher as well as disciples -------- here. (Was/were)
- Captain together with the team -------- present. (was/were)
In both the examples ignore words ‘as well as’ and ‘together with’ and the subject following
them as if they were never part of the sentence to determine the verb form.

Rule 7: Sometimes modifiers will get between a subject and its verb, but these modifiers must
not confuse the agreement between the subject and its verb.


- The mayor, who has been convicted along with his four brothers on four counts of various crimes,
---------finally going to jail. (is/are)
Here main subject is mayor and ‘four brothers’ and ‘various crimes’ are acting as modifiers and
so verb will take form of main subject. So answer is ‘is’.

Rule 8: A collective noun is taken as singular subject when it is treated as a whole and plural
when the components of the noun are treated individually.

- The jury --------- unanimously decided to consider the case (has/have)
- The jury ---------- divided on the issue (is/are)
In the first example jury will be treated as a singular subject. The word unanimous itself
suggest that collective and singular decision has been taken. In the second example the talk
is on division among the jury and the noun sounds plural hence verb will take plural form.

Rule 9: A noun which is plural in form but singular in nature (Politics, Civics etc.) will always
take singular verb. On the other hand, some words ending in -s refer to a single thing but are
nonetheless plural (assets, thanks etc.) and require a plural verb.

- Civics ------- interesting subject. (Is/are)
- Our thanks ---------- to the workers who supported the union. (Go/goes)
The correct answers are ‘is’ and ‘go’ respectively.

Rule 10: When the plural noun denotes some specific quantity or amount considered as a
whole the verb is generally singular.

- Fifty rupees -------- meagre amount (is/are)
The correct answer is ‘is’.

Rule 11: A plural countable subject takes plural verb and a plural uncountable subject takes
singular verb.

- A high percentage of the students ------- against price hike. (Is/are)
- A high percentage of the student union------ against price hike. (Is/are)

The answer to the first question is ‘are’ because A high percentage is mathematical expression
representing plural countable subject and students make it countable. In the second blank answer is
‘is’ because A high percentage is mathematical expression, student union makes it a lump sum
quantity.

Usage Note:

- Words such as glasses, pants, pliers, and scissors are regarded as plural (and require plural
verbs) unless they're preceded the phrase ‘pair of’ (in which case the word pair becomes
the subject).
Example: Scissors are use to cut paper.
A pair of scissors is used to cut paper.
- The expression "more than one" (oddly enough) takes a singular verb:
Example: More than one student has tried this."
- Sums and products of mathematical processes are expressed as singular and require
singular verbs

PRACTICE TEST

and weaknesses]9892467021
1. Either the father or the mother ____ going to have to make a decision. (is/are)

2. ______ leader or management going to win this grievance? (is/are)

3. Some of the votes __________ to have been miscounted. (seem/seems)

4. The tornadoes that tear through this county every spring _____ more than just a nuisance.
(is/are)

5. Everyone selected to serve on this jury _____ to be willing to give up a lot of time.
(have/has)

6. Three fourths of the population _________ voting for the new school. (Is/are).

7. Mukesh as well as Tom --------------attended the meeting (has, have)

8. It is not students but the principal who ------------- present. (was/were)

9. A pair of sunglasses (is/ are) just for Rs100 here in this new shopping center.

10. Three fourths of the people _________ voting for the new school. (is/are)

SOLUTIONS

1) Answer - is. The rule applied is ‘ Two singular subjects connected by either/or or neither/nor
or either or neither requires a singular verb’. Here father and chief mother both are singular
subjects and hence verb will also be singular.
2) Answer is – The rule applied is ‘the subject closer to the verb (my boss) determines the
number of the verb’. The verb has to be placed near singular subject leaderand hence it will
take singular form.
3) Answer – appear – The rule applied is – ‘A plural countable subject takes plural verb’ Some
votes is plural countable subject and hence verb will be plural.
4) Answer- are. The subject is ‘tornadoes’ which is plural and hence verb will take plural form.
The rule applied is ‘Sometimes modifiers will get between a subject and its verb, but these
modifiers must not confuse the agreement between the subject and its verb’.
5) Answer – has. The rule applied is – ‘The indefinite pronouns anyone, everyone, someone, no
one, no body, each are always singular and, therefore, require singular verbs. ‘


6) Answer – is. The rule applied is – ‘A plural countable subject takes plural verb and a plural
uncountable subject takes singular verb.’ Here three fourths of the population is lump sum
entity and hence singular in nature.
7) Answer- has. The rule applied is –‘ Words such as as well as are only modifiers to the subject
and not the subject’ . Mukesh is the main subject here and since subject is singular verb
used is also singular.
8) Answer – was. The rule applied is – ‘Sometimes modifiers will get between a subject and its
verb, but these modifiers must not confuse the agreement between the subject and its
verb’. The main subject here is principal and hence verb used will be singular.
9) Answer- is. Refer the usage notes at the end of the topic. A pair of sunglasses is a singular
subject.
10) Answer- are. The rule applied is –‘ A plural countable subject takes plural verb and a plural
uncountable subject takes singular verb.’ Here three fourths of people is countable plural
subject hence verb used is plural in nature.


Session 3 – LOGICAL REASONING
The term ‘syllogism’ comes from the Greek language which means ‘to say together’, or in other
words a deductive logic where a conclusion is derived from two premises. Hence, a typical syllogism
consists of two parts: Premises and a Conclusion. The structure of a syllogism can be represented as:

Now let us look at a valid syllogism:

Premise 1: All buses have tyres.

Premise 2: All buses are automobiles.

Conclusion: All that have tyres are automobiles.

The best way to validate if the above is a valid syllogism is by using a Venn Diagram. The Venn
Diagram for the above syllogism is given as follows:

TYRES

BUSES

AUTOMOBILES

Now, let us see another similar syllogism and check if it is valid or not using a Venn Diagram.


Statement 1: All that have tires are automobiles.

Statement 2: All buses are automobiles.

Conclusion: All buses have tires.

The Venn diagram drawn above is also applicable for the above syllogism. But it is just one case, and
there is also another case which is possible.

BUSES

TYRES

AUTOMOBILES

In the above case, the conclusion deduced from the two premises is not valid. So, the syllogism is
said to be invalid.

For a syllogism to be valid, the conclusion
should be valid for all the Venn Diagrams
possible for the given syllogism.

But most of the students fail to figure out all the Venn Diagrams for a given syllogism, thus ending up
with wrong answers. But if you always remember the following rules of making Venn Diagrams, you
can ensure that you never miss any.


RULE 1

All A are B

These types of statements are called affirmative statements. There are two possible Venn Diagrams
for such a stament, as shown below.

A=B A
B
CASE 1 CASE 2

The commonest mistake made by students in interpreting the above statement is to assume that
there are no B which are not A. However, this is just a possibility as depicted in case 1 and the
contrary is also possible as in case 2. Hence, from the above statement we cannot conclude that all B
are A, as there is a possibility of some B not being A.

RULE 2

No A are B

This statement is self explanatory and the easiest of the lot. It means that there is no element in A
that is also an element of B, or we can say that the Venn Diagrams of A and B do not intersect each
other.

A B

CASE 1

From the above Venn Diagram, it can be logically concluded that ‘No B are A’.


RULE 3

Some A are B

This is the most important rule for the students to crack syllogisms. This particular statement
appears in most of the syllogisms questions and the students also commit maximum mistakes in
interpreting such statements

This statement means that there is atleast one element of A which is also an element of B. The
important thing to note here is the word ‘atleast’. There is a general misconception that ‘Some A are
B’ means that ‘Some A are not B’; however this is not true because the statement ‘there is atleast
one element of A which is also an element of B’ also includes that ‘all elements of A are the elements
of B’. Hence, there are four possible Venn Diagrams in this case:

A B
B A

CASE 1 CASE 2

A=B A B

CASE 3 CASE 4


RULE 4

Some A are not B

This statement is very different from the previous one. It means that there is atleast one element of
A which is not an element of B. Again, the word atleast plays an important role here and it can be
logically concluded that ‘No A are B’ (however it is just a possibility).

But the conclusion ‘Some A are B’ or ‘Some B are not A’ will be completely wrong and illogical. It can
be easily verified by looking at all the possible Venn Diagrams:

B
A B
A

CASE 1 CASE 21

A B

CASE 3


4 Steps to crack syllogisms
 Go through the premises and identify their type among the given
four.
 Draw all the cases possible for each premise.
 Using the Venn Diagrams, try to prove the conclusion wrong.
 If you are unable to prove the conclusion wrong using all the
cases at your disposal, the conclusion is valid; however if you are
successful to prove it wrong, it is considered invalid.

PRACTICE TEST

and weaknesses]

1. All contracts are agreements.
All agreements are accepted offers.
Which of the following derivation is correct?
(a) All accepted offers are contracts
(b) All agreements are contracts
(c) All contracts are accepted offers
(d) None of the above.

2 . No minor can enter into a contract of work.
Working in a shop can be done only by a contract.
Which of the following derivation is correct?
(a) A minor cannot work in a shop
(b) A shop cannot contract with a minor
(c) There cannot be a contract to which minor is a party

3. All motor vehicles are required to have third party insurance.
Any vehicle not using mechanical device is not a motor vehicle.
Which of the following is correct derivation from the above?
(a) All Third Party Insurances relate to motor vehicles
(b) Vehicles not using mechanical device need not have Third Party Insurance
(c) All vehicles must have Third Party Insurance

4. All couples who have children are happy.


All couples either have children or are happy.
Assuming the above to be true, which of the following CANNOT be true?
i. Some couples are not happy.
ii. Some couples who are happy have children
iii. Some couples who have children are not happy.

a) i only
b) ii only
c) iii only
d) i and iii only
e) ii and iii.only

Instructions for question 5-10

Shade (a) if only Conclusion I follows, or

(b) if only Conclusion II follows, or

(c ) if either Conclusion I or II follows or

(d) if neither Conclusion I nor II follows.

5. Statements I All rocks are caves
II All caves are hotels
Conclusions I All rocks are hotels
II All caves are rocks
III All hotels are caves
IV The hotels that are caves are not rocks

(a) Only I follows
(b) Only II follows
(c) Only II & III follows
(d) Only IV follows
(e) None of the above

6. Statement I - All fat persons are doctors
Statement II - Some doctors are bald
Conclusions I. Some fat persons are bald
II. Some bald persons are not doctors
III No bald person is fat
IV. All doctors are fat.
(a) Only I & II follow
(b) Either I or III follows
(c) Only IV follows
(d)Either III or IV follows
(e) All the four follow

7. Statements I All men are dogs
II All dogs are cats


Conclusions I All men are cats
IIAll cats are men

8. Statements I All coins are crows
II Some crows are pens
Conclusions I No pen is coin
II Some coins are pen

9. Statements: I No women can vote
II Some women are politicians
Conclusions: I No politicians can vote
II Some politicians can vote

10. Statements I All teachers are good
II Some women are teachers
Conclusions.: I All good teachers are women
II Some women are good teachers

SOLUTIONS

1) Correct option: (C)

The following Venn Diagram can be made using the above statements

Contracts

Agreements

Accepted offers

Hence, the right answer is option c, i.e. all contracts are accepted offers.

2) Correct option: (A)


Let C denote the people who can get into a contract of work, and let W denote the people who can
work in a shop. The Venn diagram will be given as:

W
Minors
C

Hence, it is clear that no minor can work in a shop.

3) Correct option: (d)

Let M denote all motor vehicles, 3P denote all the vehicles that need to have a 3rd Party insurance,
and Mech denote the vehicles having mechanical devices.

3P
M
Mech
Vehicles

From the above Venn Diagram we cannot be sure if all 3rd party insurances relate to only motor
vehicles, however that may be a possible case. So, option a can be eliminated. Similarly, we can
prove the converse of option b using the above Venn diagram. And we also have some vehicles –
according to the Venn diagram –which do not require 3rd party insurance, so option c is also
eliminated. So, option d is the right choice.

4) Correct option: (d)


Children

Couples

Happy

In the above Venn diagram Children denotes the set of couples who have children and Happy
denotes the people who are happy.

Statement (i) is false, as all the couples are happy. Satement (ii) is true from the venn diagram. Again
statement (iii) is false, because all couples who have children are happy. So, correct choice is option
d.

5. Correct option: (a)

Caves
Rocks

Hotels

Only conclusion I is valid, and all others are refuted. Option a is the right choice.

6. Correct option: (b)


Case 1 Case 2

Doctors Doctors
Bald
Fat Fat Bald

Case 3

Doctors
Fat Bald

Case 1 refutes conclusion I, case 2 refutes conclusion III, and case 3 refutes conclusion II. Conclusion
IV is not valid for all the cases as we cannot say that all the doctors are fat, however that may be a
possible scenario. Also, conclusion I and III are self complementary, i.e. if one is false the other is
true and vice versa. Hence, the correct choice is option b.

7. Correct option: (a)

Dogs Cats
Men


From the above Venn diagram, conclusion I is valid whereas Conclusion II is invalid. Option a is the
correct choice.

8. Correct option: (c)

Crows Crows Pens
Coins Pens Coins

The above are two cases which are possible. The first one refutes conclusion I and the second one
refutes the second conclusion II. But, they are self complementary in nature. Hence, option c will be
the right choice.

9. Correct option: (c)

Women Vote
Women

Politicians Vote Politicians

The Venn diagrams above represent two possible cases where 1st case refutes conclusion I while the
2nd case refutes conclusion II. But, they are self complementary in nature; hence either of the
statements must be true. Option c is the right choice.

10. Correct option: (b)


Good
Teacher Women
s

We cannot say that all good teachers are women, because it is said that ‘some teachers are women’.
So statement I is invalid. But statement II is valid, because there will be a few women who are good
teachers. So, option b is the right answer.

Session 4 - MATHEMATICS
Percentage : The percentage has been the most frequently tested area of Mathematics in CLAT.
And the topic is simple too, if one understands the basic concepts. The idea of this session is to
explain the basic concepts of percentages.

What is Percentage?

Percentage is nothing but ‘per’ & ‘cent’ i.e. for every hundred. Anything which we can express as
‘per 100’ can be termed as percentage.

 ‘Cent’ stands for 100.

Percentages are all around us. 4 friends with a delicious chocolate cake when equally divide the cake
in 4 parts (so that they do not fight over who got more and who got less of the cake), each friend
gets:

100% (the whole cake) / 4 = 25% of the cake

 A fraction whose denominator is 100 is called percentage.
 The numerator of that fraction is called the rate per cent.

Percentage of a number

Step 1: Convert the per cent into a fraction.

Step 2: Multiply the resulting fraction with the number.

Example: 50% of 200 = (50/100) x 200 = 100

Percentage Equivalents

Percentage, fractions and decimals are all one and the same thing.


To find the % equivalent of a fraction:

Step 1: Express the fraction with a denominator 100. [Multiply & divide the fraction with such a
number so that the denominator becomes 100]

Step 2: The numerator, then, is the required percentage equivalent.

Example: [1 / 5] = [1 x 20] / [5 x 20] = [20 / 100] = 20%
Work to do:
To find the fraction equivalent of a %:
Memorize –
Step 1: Remove the % sign with ‘/ 100’.
1/2 = 50%
Step 2: Simplify the fraction.
1/3 = 33 1/3%
Example: 40% = [40 (/ 100)] = 2 / 5
1/4 = 25%

1/5 = 20%
To increase a number by a given x%:
1/6 = 16 2/3%
Step 1: Find the factor [100 + x]/100
1/8 = 12 1/2%
Step 2: Multiply the number with the factor.
1/9 = 11.11%
Example: Increase 30 by 50%
1/10 = 10%
Factor = [100 + 50]/100 = 3/2
1/20 = 5%
30 x 3/2 = 45
2/3 = 66 1/3%
OR
2/5 = 40%
30 x 1.5 = 45
3/4 = 75%
To decrease a number by a given x%:
3/5 = 60%
Step 1: Find the factor [100 - x]/100
3/8 = 37 1/2%
Step 2: Multiply the number with the factor.
4/5 = 80%
Example: Decrease 50 by 50%
7/8 = 87 1/2%
Factor = [100 - 50]/100 = 1/2

50 x 1/2 = 25

OR

50 x 0.5 = 25

Percent of a percent

10% of 20% will be nothing but


10/100 x 20/100 = 0.02 = 2%

Base of a percentage

If I say that I have 20% of money left with me then which is the right infer about the money which I
am left with?

a) I have 20 rs. Left with me
b) I have 20 rs. Left with me provided I started with 100 rs.

Obviously answer is b. Percentage cannot be equated to absolute values. We can derive absolute
value only of we know that against what quantity percentage is defined. The quantity against which
percentage is defined is called as the base of percentage.

If we had a cake with 4 slices, then each slice would have corresponded to 1/4 or 25% of the cake.
But if we were talking about the same slice and there were 2 cakes, the slice would have been only
12.5% of the total amount of cake.

If A’s salary is 10% less than B’s salary then by how much is B’salary more than A’s salary? a)
10% or b) 11.11%

Let us assume that B’salary is 100 rs then A’s salary will be 100 - .1*100 = 90 rs. Here the base is
B’ salary. But when B’s salary is asked with respect to A’ salary then A’s salary becomes the
base.

So B’ salary is 10/90 = 1/9 = 11.11% more than A’salary.

*
 It is critical to examine what base we are using to calculate the percentage values.


PRACTICE TEST

and weaknesses]
Q.1 12.5% of 80 is equal to:

(a) 8 (b) 20 (c) 40 (d) 10

Q.2 A man spends 80% of his income. His income is increased by 20% and he increased his
expenditure by 10%. His savings are increased by: [NLSU 2006]

(a) 50% (b) 37.5% (c) 60% (d) 62.5%

Q.3 The wages of an employee was first reduced by 40% and then increased by 60%. The employee
is put to: [NLSU 2006]

(a) 4% gain (b) 8% loss

(c) 4% loss (d) 10% gain

Q.4 In an examination, a candidate must get 33% marks to pass. A candidate who gets 220
marks fails by 11 marks. What is the maximum number of marks in the examination?

(a) 900 (b) 600 (c) 700 (d) 500

Q.5 Raman spends 30% of his income on house rent, 1/4 of the remaining on transport and the
balance on food. If he spends Rs. 300 on house rent, what is his expenditure on food?

(a) 525 (b) 620 (c) 675 (d) 175

Q.6 A student has to secure 40% to pass. He gets 178 marks and fails by 22 marks. The maximum
marks are:

(a) 200 (b) 800 (c) 500 (d) 1000

Q. 7 A reduction of 12.5% in the price of sofa brought down the price to 4375. The original price of
sofa was:

(a) 6000 (b) 5400 (c) 5000 (d) 5200

Q.8 If the sides of a square are increased by 50%, its area is increased by:

(a) 75% b) 100% (c) 150% (d) 125%

Q.9 Sumeet gets 10% more marks than Akbar. What percentage less marks does Akbar get when
compared to Sumit? [NUJS 2001]


(a) 10% (b) 9% (c) 9.09% (d) 11.11%

Q.10 If x is 80% of y, then what percent of 2x is y? [NLSIU 2005]

(a) 40% (b) 621/2% (c) 80% (d) 160%

Solutions

1. 12.5% of 80 = [12.5 / 100] x 80 = [1 / 8] x 80 = 10
Answer: (d) 10

2. Let us assume that the income of the man = 100x
Man spends 80% of his income hence,
Expenditure of the man = 80x
Therefore, Savings of the man = 20x

Now, income of the man has been increased by 20%
i.e. New income = 100x [old income] + 20% [increase in the income] of 100x = 120x
Also, the expenditure of the man has been increased by 10%
i.e. New expenditure = 80x [old expenditure] + 10% of 80x = 88x
Therefore, New savings = 120x – 88x = 32x [Income = Expenditure + Savings]
% increase in the savings = [{New saving – Old saving} / Old saving] 100%
= [{32x – 20x}/20x] 100% = 60%
Answer: (c) 60%

3. If a number is changed (increased or decreased) by a% and then again changed by b%,
then,
Net per cent change = [a + b + a x b/100] %
The net increase/decrease in the income of the employee = [-40 + 60 – (40 x 60)/100] = -
4% = 4% loss
Answer: (c) 4% loss

4. Let us assume the maximum number of marks in the examination = 100x
Then, 33% of 100x = 220 + 11
33x = 231
x = 231/33 = 21/3 = 7
Hence, 100x = 700
Answer: (c) 700

5. Let the income of Raman be 100x Rs.
Expenditure on house rent = 30x = 300 [Given that spending on house rent = 300 Rs.]
x = 10
Therefore the total income of Raman = 100x = 1000 Rs.


Remaining income = 100x – 30x = 70x
Also, 3/4th of the remaining income = Expenditure on food
Therefore, Expenditure on food = 3/4 [70x] = 2100/4 = 525 Rs.
Answer: (a) 525

6. Let us assume the maximum number of marks in the examination = 100x
Then, 40% of 100x = 178 + 22
40x = 200
x=5
Hence, 100x = 500
Answer: (c) 500

7. A reduction of 12.5% in the price means the new price is 7/8 th of the original price.
Say, the original price be x Rs.
Then, 7/8 of x = 4375
x = 4375 x 8 / 7 = 625 x 8 = 5000
Answer: (c) 5000

8. Let the original side of the square be a unit.
Then, the increased side will be [a + 50% of a] unit = 1.5a unit.
Original area = a x a
New area = 1.5 a x 1.5 a = 2.25 a x a
The increase in the area = [{2.25 – 1} a x a / a x a] x 100% = 1.25 x 100 % = 125%

Answer: (d) 125%

9. If X gets r% more marks than that of Y, then Y will get less marks than that of X by
[(r/100+r) x 100] %
= [(10/100+10) x 100] % = 9.09%
Answer: (c) 9.09%

10. x = 80 % of y = 0.8 y
Let us say that a % of 2x = y
Then, (a/100) 2x = y
(a/100) 1.6y = y
a = 100/1.6
a = 62.5%
Answer: (b) 62 1/2%


Session 5 – GENERAL KNOWLEDGE
EMERGENCE OF EAST INDIA COMPANY AS A MAJOR POWER BLOCK IN INDIA

• 1803- East India Company captured Delhi
• Mughal king Shah Alam II under East India Company
• The Mughals were given fixed pensions by the company during 1803 to 1857

INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
• Began post 1750
• Changed economic and political system of Europe, Asia and Africa
• Mainly required
1. Raw materials to produce goods
2. Big markets to sell their finished products,
European countries started to look for more colonies for markets and better political power in the
colonies for acquiring raw material

ANNEXATION PERIOD of British in India: 1757-1856

Important Wars

(a) Against Bengal (Anglo-Bengal wars)

• Battle of Plassey (1757)
• Battle of Buxar (1764)

(b) Against Mysore (Anglo Mysore wars)
• These were 4 wars
1st war - 1767-69
2nd war - 1780-92
3rd War - 1790-92
4th war – 1799 (defeat and death of Tipu Sultan)

(c) Against Marathas (Anglo-Maratha wars)
• These were 3 wars
1st war - 1775-82
2nd war - 1803-06
3rd War - 1817-18
• It is the third war which completely defeated the Marathas

(d) Against Punjab

• These were two wars
1st war - 1745-46
2nd war - 1748-49
• By the end of the second war East India Company was able to annex Punjab

British Rule Timelime


 From 1757 till 1856, India was ruled by the East India Company
 After the revolt of 1857, Government of India Act was enacted and the government of
India became the responsibility of the British Crown

Stablishment Of British Rule In India
• In the 18th century, India consisted of many princely states
• The British 1st defeated the Europeans (French, Dutch and Portuguese) in the coastal areas
• The British established a foothold in India through the first Anglo Bengal war in 1757

First Anglo-Bengal War: Battle Of Plassey
FIRMAN: order The Battle of Plassey on 23 June 1757 was a decisive British East India Company victory over
issued by a Mughal the Nawab of Bengal and his allies, establishing Company rule in South Asia. The battle took place
king at Palashi, Bengal (Plassey is the anglicized version of Palashi), on the banks of the Bhagirathi River,
DASTAK: a free pass near Murshidabad, then capital of undivided Bengal. The two parties were Siraj-ud-daulah, the last
issued to the independent Nawab of Bengal, and the British East India Company.
employee of East The Result: When the war took place, the actual army of Siraj under Mir Jafar did not fight. Siraj had
India Company to do no information that Mir Jafar had been bought out by Robert Clive. The poor intelligence of Indians in
trade, the war was one big reason for the failure. This battle is considered as a ‘fixed battle’ as the main
player Mir Jafar did not participate. Siraj was killed by Mir Jafar’s son Miran. Mir Jafar was appointed
the new Nawab of Bengal by E.I.C
Post Battle Of Plassey: British extracted a huge amount of cash from 1757-60 which resulted in the
exhaustion of the Bengal treasury. Mir Jafar was replaced by Mir Qasim in 1760

Battle Of Buxar (1764)
The Battle of Buxar was fought on 23 October 1764 between the British East
India Company led by Hector Munro, and the combined Muslim army of Mir
Qasim, the Nawab of Bengal; Shuja-ud-Daula the Nawab of Awadh and
the Mughal King Shah Alam II. The battle fought at Buxar, then within the
territory of Bengal, was a decisive victory for the British East India Company.
Reasons why the British easily won:
• They modernized their army
• Improved weapon system, they were swifter with their lighter weapons
• Better organization under one central command ship

This war exposed the technological backwardness of India as the company
won easily with their modern equipment.

The Great Revolt of 1857

I. Causes

(i) Military
– Uses of cartridges made from cow and pig fat (rumored) in new Enfield rifle replaced the older


Brown Bess. This use of fat was respectively offensive to the Hindus and Muslims
– Overseas deployment, which was against the belief of Hindus in not crossing the seas
– Differences in salaries for equal ranks (Refusal to pay Batta (allowance) to Indian soldiers).
Special provisions for European soldiers
- Religious identities seemed to be in crisis, under the threat of conversion
– Regular humiliation at the hands of British officers

(ii) Political cause
– Doctrine of Lapse (by Lord Dalhousie) – states under this revolted
Nana Sahib was refused pension, as he was the adopted son of Peshwa BajiRao II. Awadh was
annexed in 1856, on charges of mal-administration. Satara, Jhansi, Nagpur and Sambhalpur were
annexed owing to Doctrine of lapse

(iii) Economic causes
– High rate of taxation
– Discriminatory tariff policy against Indian products and destruction of traditional handicrafts
resulted into deindustrialization which resulted in unemployment
(iv) Socio- Religious causes
– Some reforms like Anti Sati Resolution (1829), Widow Remarriage Act (1856) were unpopular
among orthodox Hindus.
– Racial discrimination by British against Indians, Forceful conversion to Christianity
Sepoy Mutiny (May 10, 1857)
–Bloody uprising at the garrison in Meerut
Mangal Pandey –Sepoys marched to Delhi and “placed
–was a sepoy in 34thBengal Native themselves under the leadership” of the
. Infantry regiment of E.I.C. Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah.
– known for his involvement in the – The bewildered Emperor reluctantly
initial stages of revolt of 1857. accepted the sepoy’s allegiance and agreed to
– originally from Awadh. give his countenance to the rebellion.
– 1stperson to revolt, at Barrackpore. – The Mughal Emperor announced Bakht
Khan as commander-in-chief.

II. Important centres and their leaders

Centre Indian Leader(s)

Delhi Bahadur Shah II ‘Zafar’ and Bakht Khan

Bareilly Khan Bahadur Khan

Kanpur 1. Nana Saheb [adopted son of BajiRao II]

2 .Tantia Tope [accountant of Nana Saheb]

3. AzeemUllah Khan

Lucknow Begum HazratMahal, mother of BirjisQadar

Jhansi Rani LaxmiBai


Faizabad Maulvi Ahmadullah Shah (Leader of Wahabi movement)

Allahabad Liyaqat Ali

Jagdishpur (Bihar) Kunwar Singh and Amar Singh

Patna MaulviPir Ali (leader of Wahabi movement)

III. Reasons for Failure of the Revolt

 British forces were better equipped as compared to the revolutionaries.
 The revolt didn’t spread to the entire country. South India remained quiet and Punjab and
Bengal were only marginally affected.
 There was no vision for the post mutiny institutions and the leaders didn’t have any forward
looking program.
 Lack of complete nationalism-Scindias, Holkars, Nizam and others actively helped the
British.
 Lack of coordination between sepoys, peasants, zamindars and other classes.
IV. Outcomes
Queen’s Proclamation
Queen Victoria Proclaimed
The Government of India Act 1858.
 No state would be annexed.
Secretary of State of India appointed with a council
 No more intervention in religious
of 15 members to assist him.
matters.
Viceroy to be appointed.
 No conversion in religion by force.
 Viceroy – Representative of British  No discrimination in recruitment of Army
Crown Services.
 Governor General – Head of The Govt. of India Act 1858
Government of India – Company’s territories in India were to be vested in
the Queen and be governed by her.
st – The Queen’s Secretary of State received the power
1 Secretary of State – Charter Wood
and duties of the company’s Court of Directors.
1st Governor General – Lord Warren Hastings
st – The Crown was empowered to appoint a governor
1 Governor General of India – Lord William
general & governor of presidencies.
Bentinck
– Provision created for Indian Civil Services under
Last Governor General of India –
the S.O.S
C Rajagopalachari
– All property of E.L.C were transferred to the Crown
1st Viceroy & Governor General – Lord Canning


PRACTICE TEST

and weaknesses]

1. Nana Saheb, a leader of the revolt of 1857, belonged to which center?

(a) Kanpur
(b) Lucknow
(c) Buxar
(d) Delhi

Ans: a

Explanation: He was the adopted son of Bajirao II.

2. Battle of Buxar was fought in the year

a) 1757 b) 1764 c) 1765 d)1756

Ans: b

Explanation: In this epic battle, the British army defeated the combined Muslim army of Mir
Qasim, the Nawab of Bengal; Shuja-ud-Daula the Nawab of Awadh and the Mughal King Shah
Alam II.

3. The first governor general of India was

a) Lord Hastings b)Lord Bentinck c) Lord Canning d) Lord Wood

Ans: b

Explanation:

Remember –

1st Secretary of State – Charter Wood

1st Governor General – Lord Warren Hastings

1st Governor General of India – Lord William Bentinck

Last Governor General of India – C Rajagopalachari


1st Viceroy & Governor General – Lord Canning

4. Doctrine of Lapses was introduced by

a) Lord Hastings b) Lord Bentinck c) Lord Dalhousie d) Lord Canning

Ans: c

Explanation: According to the Doctrine, any princely state or territory under the direct influence
of the British East India Company , as a vassal state under the British Subsidiary System, would
automatically be annexed if the ruler was either "manifestly incompetent or died without a
direct heir". It, in many ways, triggered the revolt of 1857.

5. The 4th Anglo Mysore was fought in the year

a) 1769 b) 1792 c)1782 d)1799

Ans: d

Explanation: The war resulted in the death of Tipu Sultan.


FAQs on TestCracker
1) Who are you people?

We are a pack of dogs. No, seriously, we are not trying to be cute or creative here. We are
ferocious dogs who like to outrun the speeding car – we run as fast as we can – give it all we
have – we usually get the damn car. We have outraced many cars, but we have not yet
figured out what to do with the cars we conquer. Hell, we don’t even know how to drive. So
we then set our sights on another car, preferably faster than the previous one and the chase
begins again.

It all started when we cracked one test long back. Then we did not know what to do next; we
were completely confused about life after the test. So we wrote another test, then another,
and cracked all of them. Alexander, it is said, looked at the breadth of his empire and wept
bitterly, for there were no more worlds to conquer. We know that feeling - we are left with
no more tests to be cracked and we can tell you that is a very sad thing. It is easy to deal
with the tests – there is a prescribed syllabus. Life is tough to figure out – it is very open
ended. Jobs we tried to do, but they were not challenging enough – we mean, come on,
anyone can make the presentations and write the codes.

So here we are – back to our fortress, our comfort zones – conjuring the magic, recreating
the madness. We don’t want to scare you, but we have to admit – we are maniacs of the
highest order – we get possessed by our work. We are most comfortable working with
fellow maniacs. The serial killers have their own unique rituals. We, the serial crackers, have
our own little rituals. You will know them soon.

Like car chases? Join the pack. Crack the test.

2) Why am I here?

You want to clear the exam and you are looking for the best possible online course.
Most likely, you are someone who is fairly confident to go all the way to the top on your
own, with a little professional help. Let us profile you – hmm let’s see; most probably,
you are an adult Indian citizen between 18 and 35 years of age, who believes in all
earnest that s/he can leave everyone else behind.

Don’t be shocked – we are good at profiling people and predicting patterns – we watch
all those crime drama TV series on the telly.

3) Why do I have this urge to crack that test?

Take any test – the success ratio is close to 1%. So, even before you begin preparing for
the test you know that 99 out of 100 will not make it. You still go ahead with your
preparation because you are confident you will be that One who will make it to the
other side. That there are lakhs of forms filled for any competitive exam means that
there are lakhs of people like you, who think too that they will be The One. We all are
born with illusions of grandeur and convictions about our greatness. And we are not


wrong. We are entitled to greatness. The easiest way to experience a hint of that
greatness is through cracking a test.

You fill the form – you sleep less eat less study more – you write the test – you get the
result – you see your name and roll number right at the top.

TestCracker worships competitive exams. In an unequal world, an examination provides
you an opportunity to walk inside the examination hall as an equal to anyone else. You
want to crack the exam because in many ways it is the answer to all the questions the
world asks you daily. We know the feeling you seek – victory, vindication, sweet
revenge. We know the road to victory – we will take you there. We were there once.

4) What do I need to clear the exam?

Intelligent support, some talent and a lot of madness. We have seen in our experience
that the most commonly found characteristic in Test Crackers is brute force. They are
desperate to be there and they do whatever it takes to get there. TestCracker believes in
brute force.

This place is going to explode – we are loading dynamite here. Want some of it for
yourself too? Join us.

5) You people use too many words in your FAQs. Help me understand in simple words - why
does TestCracker exist?

Every particle has an anti-particle. Every test has a TestCracker. We exist because the
balance of the world has to be maintained.

6) Alright, so one more ‘best online programme’ – what differentiates you?

This module is conceived by the most talented and destructive brains you can find in this
country. More importantly, all of us are maniacs of the highest order. When we
committed ourselves to clearing exams, we did not leave any stone unturned to come at
the top. We prepared hard, we prepared smart, and we turned our ambition into
achievement. We are here to infect you with the same mania, so that you get the same
results.

One clarification – this is not just a test platform. This is an end-to-end preparatory
platform which gives you complete visibility of the syllabus, tests you on all the
content that you read here, along with the regularly released mock tests. The analysis
of our daily practice tests as well as mock tests is state-of-the-art. In neat colourful
graphs and graphics, you will get to know the current status of your preparation.

One more clarification – unlike all other online platforms, TestCracker does not assume
anything – it does not assume that you are attending classes somewhere, reading other
books, referring to other free online resources. In fact, it doesn’t even assume that you
would have understood all that you just read – the daily practice tests will test you and
tell you if you have really grasped the topic. The more we make you sweat in peace, the
less you will bleed in war.


One promise - we have a bagful of tricks. Trust in TestCracker to not let you down. We
will not just collate material from various sources and present to you in a different form.
We will refer to our own notes, we will give our own insights, and we will personalize
everything you get. Even a cursory look at our sample content will tell you what to
expect from the entire program. We need to be proud of what we are giving you before
we expect you to be proud of TestCracker. The sole purpose of our existence – our
raison d'être – is to make this an end to end test preparation platform. This is not a
supplement to whatever you have been doing. This is all there is. We are maniacs. We
will be doing a lot many things here which are bad for business, but good for you.

TestCracker is your class. TestCracker is your daily assessment. TestCracker is your
feedback. TestCracker is your exam.

7) What if I do really well – will TestCracker reward me?

Mr Y, our co-founder and Maniac-in-Chief, is a collector of swords. And he intends to
give one of his prized swords to whoever gets the best rank this year. However, to be a
worthy recipient of The Sword of Y, you really need to crack the damn test – tear it apart
with your talent and relentless labour. This is no ordinary sword – for you get this after
the war is over. Till then, you live by the sword.

8) So who prepares your content and designs your tests?

Everything here is handcrafted by the Crackers of the Tests. It has to appeal to our
refined taste to make the cut. If we had to do ordinary work, we would have continued
working with the multinational companies as small cogs in their big wheels. We are here
to seek creative satisfaction, a lot of it.

We will here write the bibles of all the tests in this world. We will wreck ourselves day in
and day out to find that one line which will keep you coming back. This is a promise we
will keep.

9) Alright please stop – I am convinced. How do I join?

Until we integrate the payment gateway to our system, you need to make online
transfer of the fee for your course.

Account Name – Yashaswi Kumar


After making the transfer, send the following details to support@testcracker.in (via
email) or to 09739800887 (via sms) –

 Your name & course (IAS Crasher in this case)
 Transaction ID (for online transfer)
 Your Email ID (if you are sending it through sms)
 Your mobile number (if you are sending it through email)

Once you have sent the above details, you will get access to our program within 16
working hours. You will get an email from us informing you about the same.

10) Oh, I get it, so this was all about money? What about all that talk about passion?

Unfortunately, bodies and souls have to be kept together, vendors have to be paid
and this site has to be running till it becomes self-sustainable. So, yes, we
shamelessly charge some fees for what we offer. But if you do even a little research
you will forgive us for this shamelessness. For TestCracker offers you everything that
you need for your preparation in the best ways conceivable at the lowest price
possible. Like we said, we have poor business sense. We aren’t in this for money.
The day we figure out a way to keep the bodies, souls and websites together
without charging any money from anyone, we will make this site completely free. Till
then, we have many free features lined up.

11) Any closing remark?

Stay under the knife, live by the sword, do your best, be possessed by a test. You are
fortunate you have a greater goal in life – make the most out of it. As in all cases, the
journey is much better than the destination. Revive your animal spirits.

Be a dog. Chase the car. Crack the test. Be a Test Cracker.

For any other question, comment, bouquets, brickbats, bribes, vibes, please
write to support@testcracker.in or call up 0 8103331238.
We wish you all the best for your test. See you on the other side.

In case you want to join the madness right away, the next page will tell you how.


Payment Options
We do charge some fees to keep our bodies, souls and this website together.

Course Fee
IAS Crasher 7,200
CLAT Crasher 4,200

If you think you can make us your friends, philosophers and guides to crack the test of
your choice, you can pay us through two modes – Cash Deposit and Online Transfer.

I. By Cash – You can go to the nearest branch of HDFC Bank and deposit the
amount mentioned above (as applicable to your course) in the account
mentioned below. After depositing cash, please let us know through an sms to
9739800887 or a mail to support@testcracker.in with the following details –
i Your name & course (IAS/CLAT)
ii Your email address & mobile number
iii The branch where you deposited the amount

You will get access to TestCracker within 16 working hours. Please keep the
receipt of the payment safe with you – just in case we may need it.

II. By Online Transfer – Just log on to your internet banking account and make an
online (NEFT) transfer. After making the transfer, send the following details to
support@testcracker.in (via email) or to 9739800887 (via sms) –
i Your name & course (IAS/CLAT)
ii Transaction ID (for online transfer)
iii Your Email ID (if you are sending it through sms)
iv Your mobile number (if you are sending it through email)

Once you have sent the above details, you will get access to our program within 16
working hours. You will get an email from us informing you about the same.

Account Details


If you indeed trust us with your preparation, we assure you – justice will be done.

With TestCracker on your side, even an Act of God will not be able to stop you from
entering the prestigious Law Schools.


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