1. History, Territory and Japan’s
growing isolation in East Asia
Thomas U Berger
Associate Professor
Department of International relations
Boston University
For Presentation at Temple University, Tokyo
November 27, 2012
2. The Basic Problem
• Despite:
A) growing regional interdependence, and
B) a military balance that strongly favors the
US and its allies
We have growing regional acrimony, fueled by
tensions over history and minor territorial issues
Why?
9. Efforts to re-establish harmony seem
to not meet with enduring success
Premier Wen Jiao Bao in Yoyogi Park, May 31, 2010
10. Three Questions:
• What is the basis of the ways countries think
about history and territory (the Official
Narrative)?
• When and why do differing historical
narratives become the source of inter-state
conflict?
• What – if anything – can be done about it?
11. Forces shaping the Official Narrative
• Historical Determinist – historical memory
based on individual experiences
• Instrumentalist – historical memory
manipulated by cynical elites for their own
gain
• Culturalist – historical memory part of the
larger political culture of a society
• Combination of the above
12. Historical Determinism
• Powerful experiences can create powerful
memories
• Memories can be suppressed both by
individuals or society, but they often
resurface, even after many decades
• Individuals and groups press to have their
memories reflected in the official narrative
14. Instrumentalism
• Politicians and other elites manipulate official
narrative to promote their own agendas
• The balance of power between politicians and
interest groups determines the official
narrative
16. Culturalism
• The interpretation of events and interest are
central elements of a society’s political culture
• Each generation is socialized with a particular
historical narrative – through
education, movies, plays, etc.
• Over time, the historical narrative evolves as each
generation reinterprets events in its own way
• The existing historical narrative set the boundarie
for the kind of historical narrative a state can
adopt
18. The History of the History issue in Asia
• 1945-1951 – Initial Settlement
• 1951-1982 – Successful Japanese damage
control
• 1982 – 1992 – the beginning of the “history
issue”
• 1992-2002 – era of apology diplomacy
• 2002 –Deadlock over history – apology fatigue
19. Period 1 - Initial Settlement
• The Tokyo War Crimes Tribunal
• Reverse Course in US occupation policy
• Ascent of the Conservative LDP in Japan
• The Treaty of San Francisco –
Article 11 – Japan accepts the IMTFE Verdict
Articles 14-21 – limited reparations
regime, Western Allies give up further claims
• Ambiguous Boundaries created
20. Trial and Rehabilitation
The International Military Tribunal in the The Treaty of San Francisco signed
Far East – 1946-1948 November 1951-
22. Period 2 - 1951-1978 Successful
Japanese Damage Control
• Japan chooses to focus on damage control
• Taiwan and South Korea unsuccessfully push
for compensation and concessions by Japan
• Japan signs normalization treaties with all
major Asian nations except the DPRK
1952 Taiwan
1965 South Korea
1978 The PRC
25. Reasons for First Equilibrium
• Politics in Command - Instrumental factors
predominate historical memory and cultural
discourse
• PRC, ROK, Taiwan all authoritarian states
• The Left in Japan focuses on Japanese
victimization
• Japanese conservatives not interested in
pursuing “War Responsibility”
26. Period III – History Issue Resurfaces
• 1982 – The First textbook Controversy
• New MOE guidelines on textbooks
• Nakasone apology in Korea
• 1985 – Nakasone visits Yasukuni
27.
28. Drivers for the Emergence of the
History Problem
• Strong, historically rooted Anti-Japanese
discourse in China and Korea (Cultural
discourse)
• Pluralization allows victims groups to come to
the fore (Historical memory)
• Increased interdependence of Asian countries
– First strategic (Cold war)
– Then economic
• Use of human rights norms by victims groups
29. The Birth of Modern Chinese and
Korean Nationalism
The March 1rst, 1919 Movement in Korea
30. Korea – Colonial Modernity –
authoritarianism made in Japan
Park Cheung Hee – as an officer in the Japanese Imperial Army, ca. 1944
and as President of the Republic of Korea
32. Period IV – Groping for Reconciliation
• 1991 - Kaifu in Singapore – history key to a more
active role in Asia
• 1992 – Emperor visits China
• 1993 – Kono statement on the Comfort Women
• 1995 – Asian Women’s Fund
Murayama Statement
• 1998 – Kim Dae Jung-Obuchi Keizo Summit
• 2002 – Korea-Japan host the World Cup
36. Period IV – Deadlock over history
• 2001-2006 Under Koizumi tensions flare up
• Collapse of territorial negotiations with Russia
• Korean-Japanese reconciliation founders
under Lee Myun Bak
• Anti-Japanese riots in 2005 in China
• Japanese Apology fatigue
• Escalates into territorial disputes
37. Reasons for Deadlock
• Japanese conservative backlash and “apology
fatigue”
• Lack of active support for reconciliation from the
Korean government
• Lack of interest in reconciliation by the Chinese
government
• Temptation to utilize popular sentiments for
domestic political agenda
• Inability of governments (China, Korea and Japan)
to re-establish control over the diplomatic
agenda
39. Aggressively Patriotic Sentiments
Translation: Even if the whole of China is covered with tombs, [we]
must kill all Japanese; even if no grass grows in China, we must
recover Diaoyudao [the Senkakus]
43. Bottom Line – a Paradox
• The broad framework of international
relations – balance of power and
interdependence - favors general stability
• The political dynamics of the history issue –
the combination of historical memory, cultural
discourse and instrumental use of the issue by
opportunistic politicians – creates volatility
44. Risks for Japan and the US-Japan
Relationship
• Japan risks diplomatic isolation in East Asia
• Lack of sympathy on the part of the US –
especially with regard to the Comfort women
issue
• Danger of accidental escalation in the
Senkakus
47. Possible Counter measures
• Greater flexibility on territorial issues
• Damage control on history with China/
reconciliation with Korea – if Korea is ready
• CSBMs on Senkakus – when China is ready
• Is this politically possible for Japan and its
neighbors?