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Introduction (note this is not bold)
Write an introduction to your company. Describe your
hypothetical company, its location, and the product it makes or
the service it provides, and introduce the contents of your
marketing plan.Mission Statement
Develop your company’s mission statement (do not confuse a
mission statement with a tag line, slogan, or positioning
statement). Also, your mission statement should resonate with
your consumers/customers as well as with your employees and
stakeholders – remember to see the purpose of a mission
statement and rationalize yours. Do not just state a mission
statement without rational – answer why.
Goals
Write an introduction to this section here (minimum of three
sentences). Note, your goals should be realistic, practical, and
SMART (i.e., S. – specific; M. – measurable; A. – assignable;
R. – realistic; and T. – time based).

Short Term
Text starts here – Decide the main goals that you would like to
achieve within the next year (short term). Determine the most
appropriate ways to measure short term goals. Note: Consider
the following metrics: tracking downloads of Website content,
Website visitors, increases in market share, customer value, new
product adoption rates, retention, rate of growth compared to
competition and the market, margin, and customer engagement.
For information on Website analytics, visit Google Analytics at
http://www.google.com/analytics/why/
Long Term
Decide the mains goals that you would like to achieve within
the next five (5) years (long term). Determine the most
appropriate ways to measure long term goals. Note: Consider
the following metrics: tracking downloads of Website content,
Website visitors, increases in market share, customer value, new
product adoption rates, retention, rate of growth compared to
competition and the market, margin, and customer engagement.
For information on Website analytics, visit Google Analytics at
http://www.google.com/analytics/why/Environmental Analysis
Develop an environmental analysis that includes competitive,
economic, political, legal, technological, and sociocultural
forces. Include an introduction of these elements. Write an
introduction to this section (minimum of three sentences).
Competitive Analysis
Competitive analysis here - (who is the competition – direct and
indirect, why do you consider them to competition, what do they
do well, what might be a weakness?).
Economic Analysis
Economic analysis here - (Through this factor, businesses
examine the economic issues that are bound to have an impact
on the company. This would include factors like inflation,
interest rates, economic growth, the unemployment rate and

policies, and the business cycle followed in the country).
Political and Legal Analysis
Political and legal analysis here. Separate the topics if you have
significant analysis. (Political and Legal: Here government
regulations and legal factors are assessed in terms of their
ability to affect the business environment and trade markets.
The main issues addressed in this section include political
stability, tax guidelines, trade regulations, safety regulations,
and employment laws).
Technological Analysis
Technological analysis here – (How technology can either
positively or negatively impact the introduction of a product or
service into a marketplace is assessed here. These factors
include technological advancements, lifecycle of technologies,
the role of the Internet, and the spending on technology research
by the government).
Sociocultural Forces Analysis
Sociocultural forces here – (With the social factor, a business
can analyze the socio-economic environment of its market via
elements like customer demographics, cultural limitations,
lifestyle attitude, and education. With these, a business can
understand how consumer needs are shaped and what brings
them to the market for a purchase).SWOT and Needs Analysis
Develop both a SWOT analysis and needs analysis for your
product. Each analysis should examine three (3) each of
strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats for your
company. Suggestion is to write an introduction (minimum of
three sentences) and create a SWOT table (use APA formatting,
label Table 1, etc.). Include an analysis, not just the table.
Rationalize why you choose these SWOT elements.
Table 1
SWOT Analysis
Strengths

· Short bullet
· Xxxx
· xxxx
Weaknesses
· Short bullet
· Xxxx
· xxxx
Opportunities
· Short bullet
· Xxxx
· xxxx
Threats
· Short bullet
· Xxxx
· xxxx
Note: Strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats for xxxx
company.
Strengths
Include three strengths and explain the importance (think
features and benefits to customer). Strengths are internal; what
you can control.
Weaknesses
Include three weaknesses and impact to the business and/or
customer. Weaknesses are internal; what you can control.
Opportunities
Include three opportunities and explain the importance (think
features and benefits to customer). Opportunities are external;
what is happening outside your company you can take
advantage of such as new technology.
Threats
Include three threats and impact to the business and/or

customer. Threats are external; what is happening outside your
company that will impact your business such as new
government policies or laws.Conclusion
Summarize the plan to this point (minimum of three sentences)
and you should not include any new thoughts (just summary).
References (note this is centered and not bold and on a separate
page)
Use at least three (3) academic resources as quantitative
marketing research to determine the feasibility of your product /
service. These resources should be industry specific and relate
to your chosen product / service. Note: Newspapers, magazines,
and other Websites do not qualify as academic resources.
Quality references are peer-reviewed, scholarly journal
published in the last 5 years. A good way to incorporate is by
using Journal of Marketing for your theories and consumer
behavior observations.
Listing your references without applying them in your text
(citations) is not acceptable!!! See proper formatting in APA
hints on page 7 of this document.
Tips and APA Formatting (delete this from your paper)
Below are tips and notes to guide you writing an APA paper.
Use this information as a reference and ask if you have any
questions.
Tips and Notes:
1. NEVER plagiarize: Plagiarism: act of using someone else’s
ideas, words, figures, unique approach, or specific reasoning
without giving appropriate credit.
2. Always include an introduction for your Heading 1 topic
(example: Environmental Analysis) to explain to the readers
what they learn in the section you are introducing.
3. Paragraphs should be complete, such as a minimum of three
sentences:
a. “Put only one main idea per paragraph.
b. Aim for three to five or more sentences per paragraph.
c. Include on each page about two handwritten or three typed

paragraphs.
d. Make your paragraphs proportional to your paper. Since
paragraphs do less work in short papers, have short paragraphs
for short papers and longer paragraphs for longer papers.
e. If you have a few very short paragraphs, think about whether
they are really parts of a larger paragraph—and can be
combined—or whether you can add details to support each point
and thus make each into a more fully developed paragraph.”
(https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/606/02/ )
f. http://blog.apastyle.org/apastyle/2011/12/the-long-and-the-
short-of-it.html
g. http://arc.aje.com/editing-tip-sentence-length/
4. Don not use (or minimize):
a. they (minimize, pronouns, use actual names/titles for clarity)
b. these
c. there are
d. thing
e. it
f. this
g. I
h. we
i. you
j. one or ones
k. some
l. a lot
m. a ton
n. really
o. very
5. Use of contractions – spell out
6. Use of conjunctions:
https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/598/1/ An
independent marker word is a connecting word used at the
beginning of an independent clause. These words can always
begin a sentence that can stand alone. When the second
independent clause in a sentence has an independent marker
word, a semicolon is needed before the independent marker

word.
Ex. Jim studied in the Sweet Shop for his chemistry quiz;
however, it was hard to concentrate because of the noise.
a. Some common independent markers are: also, consequently,
furthermore, however, moreover, nevertheless, and therefore.
7. Findings: are past tense
8. Use of italics:
https://owl.english.purdue.edu/engagement/2/1/45/ : only
Italicize the titles of magazines, books, newspapers, academic
journals, films, television shows, long poems, plays, operas,
musical albums, works of art, websites.
APA Guidelines:
1. American Psychological Association (2010). Publication
manual of the American Psychological Association (6th ed.).
Washington, DC: Author.
2. APA Website: www.apastyle.org
3. Updated APA guideline notes on ELCSE website under
Student Resources
(http://www.aug.edu/elcse/ELCSE_APA_Guidelines.pdf)
4. Sample paper – guideline to Headers:
https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/01/
5. Numbers:
6. Formatting Tables and Figures
7. How to cite:
· Paraphrasing within text:
· In a 1989 article, Gould explores some of Darwin’s most
effective metaphors.
· Author cited in text:
· Gould (1989) attributed Darwin’s success to his gift for
making the appropriate metaphor.

· Author not cited in text:
· As metaphors for the workings of nature, Darwin used the
tangled bank, the tree of life, and the face of nature (Gould,
1989).
· Multiple works within the same parenthesis:
· Several studies (Balda, 1980; Kammil, 1988; Pepperberg &
Funk, 1990) confirm the use of metaphors increases learning.
· First citation in text:
· Wasserstein, Zappula, Rosen, German, and Rock (1994) found.
. .
· The use of metaphors was found to be helpful (Wasserstein,
Zappula, Rosen, German, & Rock, 1994)
· Subsequent citations (3 or more authors):
· Wasserstein and colleagues (1994) found
· Wasserstein et al. (1994) found
· The use of metaphors was found to be helpful (Wasserstein et
al., 1994)
· Authors With the Same Last Name: To prevent confusion, use
first initials with the last names.
· (E. Johnson, 2001; L. Johnson, 1998)
8. Direct quote from author: (use sparingly):
a. Gould (1989) explains that Darwin used the metaphor of the
tree of life “to express the other form of interconnectedness-
genealogical rather than ecological-and to illustrate both
success and failure in the history of life” (p.14).
9. Direct quote without name of author:
a. Darwin used the metaphor of the tree of life “to express the
other form of interconnectedness-genealogical rather than
ecological” (Gould, 1989, p.14).
10. References:
· References are listed on separate page, header is centered, do
not bold
· Notice no first names used, only initials and in alphabetical
order.
· Only citations that appear in the text should appear on the
reference page

· Everything cited in the text should appear on the reference
page.
· References are double-spaced, flush left with subsequent lines
indented 5 spaces
· Examples:
· Online Periodicals General format:
Author, A. A. (date). Title of article. Title of Journal,
volume(number), page numbers. doi: xx.xxxxxxx
· Example:
Herbst-Damm, K. L., & Kulik, J. A. (2005). Volunteer support,
marital status, and the survival times of terminally ill patients.
Health Psychology, 24, 225-229. doi: 10.1037/0278-
6133.24.2.225
· Book General format:
Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. (year of
publication). Title of work: Capital letter also for subtitle
(number ed.). Location City, State Abbreviation: Publisher.
· Example:
Anderson, A. B., Smith, S. D., & Jones, J. C. (1978). A distant
mirror: The calamitous fourteenth century (3rd ed.). New York,
NY: Knopf.
· DOIs are unique strings of numbers used to identify online
articles’ content and provide a persistent link to their location
on the Internet.
· When DOIs are present, no longer have to include URL.
· When DOIs are not present, include URL
· https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/01/
· Finding DOIs: http://www.crossref.org
· Example without a DOI:
Sillick, T. J., & Schutte, N. S. (2006). Emotional intelligence
and self-esteem mediate between perceived early parental love
and adult happiness. Applied Psychology, 2(2), 38-48.
Retrieved from http://ojs.lib.swin.edu.au/index.php/ejap

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Ubrary of Congress Catalogiag-in-Publlcadon Data
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PEARSON
www.pcarsonhighered.com I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 JO-RRD-16 15 14
13 12
___ e, H A P T E R 1 7
The Evolution
of Life
17 .1 The Origin of Life
INTEGRATED SCIENCE 17A ASTRONOMY
Oid life on Earth Originate on Mars?
17 .2 Early Llf e on Earth
17 .3 Charles Darwin and The Origin of Species
17 .4 How Natural Selection Works
HISTORY OF SCIENCE
The Peppered Moth
17 .s Adaptation
SCIENCE AND SOCIETY

Antibiotic-Resistant Baderia
INTEGRATED SCIENCE 17B PHYSICS
Staying Wann and Keeping Cool
17 .6 Evolution and Genetics
17.7 How Species Form
17 .8 Evidence of Evolution
INTEGRATED SCIENCE 17C EARTH SCIENCE
Fossils: Earth's Tangible Evidence of Evolution
17. 9 The Evolution of Humans
MARINJE :LGWAN..AS swim th.ro~ seawatem wifru<their
long, f.lattened t ails. Flies
taste food with the .hains en fllcir feet. Bats
catcili inset;ts in midair. f;:aGtuses grow shai:p
S?ines mat prate~ them £tom atwna:ls. 'Tih.ese
@[email protected], and the eounfless other -ways iru
whicli organisms are st:tU.eturcd to SlliiYJ.EVe
and reproduee, maJce 'JP fille •llilGreoiale stOly
of evolutien. ;BJow do living 6hings dbange
over tiifte irt response fo iheii; environments?
Mter all, a giraffe ~an:~ grow a long tD.eGlc justi
because it wan-ts to. So, how ao ada,ptations
(sudi. as a•gifaffe's long nd ). aGtUa.lly. Gome
about? Poes the same ,proeess ,ex:plain !how
new types of living things- new ~eeies-

originare? Also, if all organisms today evolved
from· earlier organisms, then, how did, life get
startea in the fust place? Read oft O a.isgover
these seorets of life.
CHAPTER 17 THE EVOLUTION OF LIFE 487
• • •
•M Charles Darwin and The Origin of Species
EXPLAIN TH 15 How did the Galapagos finches contribute to
Darwin's ideas
about evolution?
H ow has life on Earth changed over time? For example, how
did we get from tiny, primitive cells to humans, hippos,
redwoods, and all the amazing diversity of life on Earth today?
For thousands of years, people believed that life on Earth did
not change. They
believed that Earth had always had the same species, and always
would. Then
fossils were discovered in Earth's rocks, and people began to
wonder. Fossils sug-
gested that the kinds of species living on Earth changed over
time-old species
disappeared, and new species appeared. Also interesting was
that fossil organisms
sometimes showed a distinct resemblance to modern species
(Figure 17.8). Could
some fossils actually be the ancestors of modern species?
French naturalise Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (1744-1829) was one

of the first to
argue that chis was the case. Lamarck believed that modern
species were descended
from ancestors that had evolved-changed over time-to become
better adapted
co the environments they lived in. According to Lamarck,
organisms acquired new
characteristics during their lifetimes and then passed these
characteristics to their
offspring. For example, ancestral giraffes screeched their necks
to grab the high leaves
on a tree, and their necks became longer. They then passed
these longer necks to
their offspring. The offspring reached for even higher leaves,
stretching their necks
even further, and so on (Figure 17.9a). Lamarck's theory for
how change occurs,
called the inheritance of acquired characteristics, proved to be
incorrect: Organisms
cannot pass characteristics acquired during their lifetimes to
their offspring because
these acquired characteristics are not genetic. However,
Lamarck's fierce support for
the idea that organisms evolve sec the stage for Charles Darwin.
Ancestral
giraff~ stretched
their necks.
FIGURE 17 , 9
Their offspring
inherited the
stretched necks.

This happened
repeatedly over
generations.
(b} I Darwin
Among ancestral
giraffes, some
individuals had
longer necks
than others.
(a) Lamarck believed that organisms acquired new
characteristics during their lifetimes and
passed these characteristics to their offspring. (b) In his theory
of evolution by natural selection,
Darwin argued that organisms with advantageous traits left
more offspring than organisms
with other traits. As a result, advantageous traits became more
common in a population.
LEARNING OBJECT I VE
Describe some of the Influences
and events that brought Darwin
to his theory of evolution through
natural selection.
FIGURE 17.B
Could fossils be the ancestors of
modern spei:ies? This fossilt found in
Germany, is about 50 million years
old. It has a clear resemblance co a
horse. yet is only the size of a fox.

UNIFYING CONCEPT
• 1he Scin,tiftc Method
Secdon 1.3
Those with longer
necks left more
offspring, also with
long necks.
This h11ppened
repeatedly over
generations.
488 PART THREE BIOLOGY
FIGURE 17.10
Charles Darwin developed the theory
of evolution by natural selection.
There's an expression: Genius is 1 %
Inspiration and 99% perspiration.
Darwin's genius reflects a lot of
perspiration. While on the Beagle,
Darwin collected 1529 alcohol•
preserved specimens and 3907
skins, bones, and dried specimens.
He also took 2000 pages of notes
on plants, animals, and geology.
It's no wonder that when he wrote
down his theory, he was able to
support It with a wide variety of

well-considered examples.
FIGURE 17.11
The finches Darwin saw on the Gala-
pagos Islands-now called Darwin's
finches-show remarkable variation in
the size and shape of their beaks. Each
is suited to a different diet. (a) The
cacms finch has a pointy beak that it
uses co eat cactus pulp and Aowers.
(b) The large ground finch has a blunt,
powerful beak that it uses to crack
seeds. (c) The woodpecker finch has
a woodpecker-like beak chat it uses
to drill holes in wood. It then uses a
cactus spine to pry out insects.
English naturalist C harles Darwin (1809-1882), shown in
Figure 17.10, sec
forth the theory of evolution in his book The Origin of Species
by Means of Natu-
ral Selection, published in 1859. Darwin proposed that
evolution-inherited
changes in populations of organisms over time-had produced all
the living
forms on Earth.
Darwin's theory of evolution grew out of the observations he
made as the
official naturalist aboard the H.M.S. Beagle, which sailed
around South America
from 1831 co 1836. During these years, Darwin studied South
American species,
collecting large numbers of plants, animals, and fossils. Darwin
became increas-
ingly intrigued by the question of how species got to be the way

they were. He was
particularly struck by the living things he encountered on the
Galapagos Islands,
950 kilometers from the South American continent. Darwin
cook particular note
of the 13 species of Galapagos finches-now known as Darwin's
finches. Darwin's
finches showed remarkable variation in the size and shape of
their beaks, with
each beak being suited to; and used for, a different diet (Figure
17.11). How had
the beaks of these finches come co differ in this way? Darwin
wrote, "Seeing this
gradation and diversity of structure in one small, intimately
related group of birds,
one might really fancy chat from an original paucity of birds in
this archipelago,
one species had been taken and modified for different ends."*
Darwin was also inspired by the work of two of his
contemporaries, Charles
Lyell and Thomas Malthus. Lyell, a geologist, argued that
Earth's geological fea-
tures were created not by major catastrophic events-the favored
theory of the
time-but by gradual processes that produced their effects over
long time peri-
ods. For example, the formation of a deep canyon did not
require a cataclysmic
flood, but could result from a river's slow erosion of rock over
millennia. Darwin
realized chis could be true for organisms as well: The
accumulation of gradual
changes over long periods could produce all che diversity of
living organisms as
well as all their remarkable features.

The economist Thomas Malthus was a second important
influence for Darwin,
and the one who led Darwin to his great idea on the cause of
evolutionary
change. Malthus observed that human populations grow much
faster than avail-
able food supplies, and he concluded, wich despair, chat famine
was an inevitable
feature of human existence. Darwin applied Malchus's idea to
the natural world
and argued that, because there are not enough resources for all
organisms co
survive and to reproduce as much as they can, living organisms
are involved
in an intense "struggle for existence." As a result, organisms
with advantageous
traits leave more offspring than organisms with other traits,
causing populations
to change over time. To go back to the giraffe's long neck:
Darwin argued chat
*Charles Darwin, The Voyage of the Beagle, 1909.
(a) (cl
ancestral giraffes with longer necks were better ac reaching the
high leaves on
trees. Because longer-necked giraffes got more food, they were
able to survive and
leave more offspring than ancestral giraffes with shorter necks.
This happened

repeatedly over generations. Over time, there were more longer-
necked giraffes in
the giraffe population (Figure 17.9b). This process, which
Darwin called natural
selection, is the major driving force behind evolution.
CHECK YOURSELF
1. If Lamarck had been correct and evolutionary change
occurred through
the inheritance of acquired characteristics, what trait might a
bodybuilder
pass to his offspring?
2. Many animals that live in the Arctic, such as Arctic hares,
have white fur.
How could natural selection explain the evolution of their white
fur color?
CHECK YOUR ANSWERS
1. If Lamarck were correct, the bodybuilder's children would
inherit the
increased muscle mass that the bodybuilder had acquired over a
lifetime
of weightlifting. Because Lamarck's theory turned out to be
incorrect,
however, the children will have to do their own bodybuilding.
2. Animals that were harder to see in their snowy environments
had an
advantageous trait-predators were less likely to spot them.
Arctic hares
with whiter fur were more likely to survive to adulthood,
reproduce, and
leave offspring. These offspring would also have inherited

whiter fur. As
a result, whiter fur became more common in the Arctic hare
population.
Over many generations, natural selection produced a white coat
that
matches the Arctic snow.
•fl• How Natural Selection Works
EXPLAIN THIS What does it mean to say that one rabbit has
greater fitness
than another?
R
abbics were introduced into Australia in 1859, when a man
named Thomas
Austin released 24 individuals onto his property in the
southeastern part
of the continent. The rabbits quickly became pests, devastating
farmlands
and natural habitats (Figure 17.12). Breeding "like rabbits,"
they spread across the
continent in such large numbers chat they were described as a
"gray blanker" that
covered the land. Many attempts were made to control the rabbit
population,
including the construction of an 1822-kilometer-long "rabbit-
proof' fence- still
the longest fence in the world. Unfortunately, by the time the
fence was completed
in 1907, the rabbits had already passed through. (The fence
wouldn't have worked
anyway-even after it was completed, rabbits would pile up so
thickly behind it
that some were eventually able to walk right over their
companions' backs to the

ocher side.)
In the early 1950s, the government decided to try to control the
rabbit popu-
lation by releasing myxoma virus, a virus deadly to rabbits.
Initially, the virus
was a wonder, killing more than 99.9% of infected rabbits.
Within a few years,
however, fewer rabbits were dying. What had happened? Within
che original
rabbit oooulation, a small number of individuals happened co be
resistant co the
MasteringPhysics"
TUTORIAL: Darwin and the
Galapagos Islands
VIDEO: Galapagos Islands Overview
VIDEO: Galapagos Marine Iguana
LEARNING OBJECTIVE
Explain how natural selection
results in populations becoming
adapted to their environments.
Mastering Physics·
TUTORIAL: Causes of
Mi croevol u ti on
(a)
(bl

FIGURE 17.12
(a) Rabbits introduced into Australia
caused widespread destruction, includ-
ing here on Phillip Island. (b) This
photo shows the same area after rabbits
were eradicated. The vegetation has
grown back.
myxoma virus. These resistant individuals survived the disease
and reproduced,
producing more disease-resistant offspring (Figure 17.13). Over
time, the num-
ber of disease-resistant rabbits increased, and the virus became
less and less effec-
tive. The rabbit population had evolved resistance to the
myxoma virus through
natural selection.
Natural selection occurs when organisms with advantageous
traits leave more
offspring than organisms with ocher traits, causing populations
to change over
time. Let's look more carefully at the process of natural
selection.
1. Variation. In any population of organisms, individuals have
many traits
chat show variation-that is, they vary from individual to
individual. In
humans, some variable traits are height, hair color, hairstyle,
foot size, and
blood type.
2. Heritability. Many traits are determined at lease parcly by
genes and so are

heritable-that is, they are passed from parents to offspring.
Which of the
human traits listed above are heritable? All of them arc
heritable except hair-
style. Hairstyle is not heritable because it is not genetically
determined.
3. Natural selection. Some variable heritable traits are
advantageous. The
organisms that possess these advantageous traits are able co
leave more
offspring than organisms without che advantageous traits. The
fitness of
an organism describes the number of offspring it leaves over its
lifetime
compared co ocher individuals in the population. An organism
chat leaves
more offspring than other individuals in the population is said
co have
greater fitness.
4. Adaptation. Because organisms with advantageous traits
leave more offspring,
advantageous traits are "selected for" and become more common
in a popula-
tion. What is the result? The population evolves to become
better adapted to
its environment.
Figure 17.14 summarizes the process of natural selection. Note
chat, although
natural selection acts on individuals within a population,
allowing some indi-
viduals to leave more offspring chan others, it is the population
as a whole chat
evolves and becomes adapted to its environment.

FIGURE 17.13
.. '
,, .
. :u:
~~: ..
,,. ,, ......
•••
Disease-resistant
rabbit
At first, the myxoma virus killed 99.9% of infected rabbits.
However, a small number of
naturally disease-resistant rabbits (blue) survived and
reproduced, passing their myxoma·
resistant genes to their offspring. The population became more
resistant, and the virus
became less effective.
(1} VARIATION
Organisms have lots of traits,
many of which show variation.
(3) NATURAL SELECTION
Variation in heritable traits can result in
some organisms leaving more offspring

than others. This is called natural selection.
CHECK YOURSELF
(2} HERITABILITY
Some traits are heritable. They are
determined by genes and so are
passed from parents to offspring.
(4) ADAPTATION
Natural selection causes advantageous
traits to become more common in a
population. In this way, entire populations
become adapted to their environments.
1. (a) Which of these traits are variable In cats: fur color, tall
length, number of
eyes? (b) Which of the traits are heritable?
2. The cheetah Is the
fastest land animal
on Earth. It can run
112 kllometersjhour
(70 mllesjhour)I
Cheetahs prey
on Thomson's
gazelles that can
run almost as fast,
80 kilometersjhour
(50 mllesjhour).
How might natural
selection have pro-

duced the cheetah's
fast running speed?
CHECK YOUR ANSWERS
1. (a) Fur color varies among cats-there are tabby cats, black
cats, gray cats,
and so on. Tail length also varies-not all cats' tails are exactly
the same
length. But there is no variation in the number of eyes-all cats
have two
eyes. (b) All three traits are heritable because all are determined
genetically.
2. Faster cheetahs were better at catching Thomson's gazelles.
Being better at
catching food made faster cheetahs better at surviving and
reproducing. As a
result, faster cheetahs left more offspring, which were also fast.
This resulted
in a cheetah population with faster Individuals. Over many
generations,
natural selection produced the remarkably fast cheetah we know
today.
FIGURE 17.14
How natural selection works.
The Peppered Moth
During the Industrial Revolution, coal was the primary fud in
England. Burning coal slathered dark soot on trCG, rocks, and
ground. And then a startling thing happened to the moths.

Peppered moths in England had always been light in
color, with the scattering of dark peppery flecks that gave
them their name. Their coloration made them hard to sec
in a habitat oflichcn-covered trees and rocks. (Lichens are
fungi that grow with photosynthetic algae or bacteria; they
form crustlike growths on rocks, trees, and other surfaces.)
It was believed that this camouflage protected the moths
from birds, their main predators.
As the Industrial Revolution progressed, pollution killed
the lichens, leaving the trees first bare and then darkened
with soot. In 1848, the first dark peppered moth was found
in the industrial center of Manchester, England. Dark
moths had probably always existed in the population, but
they had been extremely rare. Over the next decades, as
more coal burned and the environment became increasingly
sooty, more and more dark moths were seen. By 1895, 98%
of peppered moths in industrialii.ed areas were dark. Then,
in the second half of the 20th century, antipollution laws
were passed and soot disappeared. Light moths increased in
number, and today the dark moths have all but disappeared.
Did natural selection cause the coloration shifts in the pep-
pered moth? Biologists hypothcsii.ed that in lichen-covered
habitats, natural sdcction favored light moths because they
were better camouflaged. In sooty habitats, natural selec-
tion favored dark moths. A series of experiments by Bernard
Kettlewell tested this hypothesis, Kettlewell released equal
numbers of marked dark and light moths in polluted and un-
polluted areas. After a while, he tried to rccaprure the moths.
In polluted areas, Kettlewell recaptured more dark moths than
light moths, which suggested that dark moths had survived
better. The opposite was true in unpolluted habitats, where he
Can you find the moths? Light peppered

moths arc well camouflaged on lichc:n-
covcrcd trees.
rccipturcd more light moths. Kettlewell also placed moths on
tree trunks and filmed birds eating the moths. He found that
birds ate what they could sec: Birds ate more light moths in
polluted habitats and more dark moths in unpolluted habitats.
Kettlewell's work became a classic example of natural
sdcction. Evcnrually, however, certain aspects of his experi-
ments were challenged. For example, moth experts pointed
out that peppered moths don't usually sit on tree trunks,
where Kettlewell had placed them. Instead, they usually rest
on the undersides of branches. In addition, Kettlewell released
the normally nocturnal moths during the daytime. This may
have affected the moths' ability to find resting spots. Finally,
Kettlewell used a mix oflab-raised and wild-caught moths,
which could differ in their behavior. These doubts led
Michael Majerus of Cambridge University to conduct a new
set of experiments belWcen 2001 and 2007. Majerus's work
confirmed that bird predation was the key factor affecting the
relative numbers oflight and dark peppered moths. It is also
interesting that a shift from light to dark forms in polluted
areas (and back again, as pollution is cleaned up) has been
rcponcd in more than 70 other moth species in England and
the United States alone.
LEARNING OBJECTIVE
Use examples to describe different
kinds of adaptations found in living
organisms.
•flj Adaptation
EXPLAIN THIS Why do some birds have bright feathers despite
the fact that
the vivid colors make them more visible to predators?

Natural selection leads to the evolution of adaptations-traits that
make organisms well suited co living and reproducing in their
environments. The Check Yourself question in the preceding
section gave an example
of an adaptation- the cheetah's speed. The cheetah's speed helps
it catch the
food it needs co survive and reproduce.
Adaptations can relate co various aspects of an organism's life.
Some adapta-
tions help organisms survive. Survival is, after all, usually an
important flrst step
in successful reproduction. Survival requires that organisms be
able to acquire
food and other necessary resources. It also requires that
organisms avoid becom-
ing food for someone else (Figure 17.15). Anti-predator
adaptations include cam-
ouflage, toxicity, or just the ability to hide or run away.
{a) {b)
Other adaptations have evolved to help organisms acquire
maces. These include
the beautiful feathers of male peacocks and birds of paradise
(Figure 17.16a), the
sexy "rib-bits" of male frogs, and che enchanting songs of many
male birds. Males
have evolved these "sexy" traits because females of the species
find chem attrac·
tive. In ocher species, females don't choose their mates based on

attractive traits.
Instead, males fight with other males to obtain mates. The
adaptations of these
males may include large size, great strength, or fighting
structures such as ant-
lers (Figure 17.16b). Natural selection chat favors individuals
best able to acquire
maces is also called sexual selection.
(a) (b)
Finally, some adaptations relate co bearing and raising young.
Figure 17.17
shows one such adaptation- parental care. Parental care evolved
because natural
selection favored organisms chat were able to help their
offspring survive and
thrive. Parental care is found in many animals, including
humans.
Natural selection has produced remarkable adaptations over
time. Nature
does not plan ahead- it does not plan to make a falcon or a polar
bear. Instead,
adaptations are built step by step, through the never-ending
selection of the most
successful forms.
FIGURE 17.15
Almost every organism has adaptations
that help prevent it from becoming
food for someone else. (a) The spines
of this cactus prevent most animals
from eating it. (b) When threatened,
this octopus releases a cloud of dark
ink that may confuse a predator long

enough for the octopus to escape.
The peacock may be.the organism
with the most famous adaptation
for attracting mates. The male
peacock's great fan of colorful
tall feathers not only Is admired
by people but, more Important;
Impresses peahens.
And speaking of bright colors-
the bold colors of organisms
such as wasps, coral snakes, and
poison dart frogs evolved to warn
potential predators that th~y are
dangerous.
FIGURE 17.16
Some adaptations for acquiring
mates. (a) The beautiful feathers of
this male bird of paradise (shown
here displaying his wings) help attract
female mates. (b) These male deer
arc fighting for control of territory as
well as mates.
FIGURE 17.17
Parental care occurs in many species.
This male poison dart frog is carry-
ing his tadpoles on his back.
- --

•• It
' CHECK YOURSELF / ., ' ; , I •
-~. ' '
'
,,.~· ~.
Mating Is very dangerous for a male praying mantis. Quite
often, the female
will eat him as he mates with her.
" ,:-. ' . , ~, 1. What advantage does the female get from eating
the male7 2. Would It be more advantageous {#adaptive") for
the male not to mate at all7
-~
CHECK YOUR ANSWERS
When a male praying mantis (the:
smaller insect on top) mates with a
female:, he: is in danger of having his
head bitten off.
1. The female gets nutrients when she eats the male.
2. A male praying mantis that never mates is more likely to
survive to old
age. But, if he doesn't mate, he won't leave any offspring.
Remember
Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria
A patient is ill with pneumonia and gets a prescription fur
penicillin. After three: days, he: feels better and stops mking his
pills. A few days later, his symptoms return. He: quickly finds
his pills and starts ta1cing them again, but this time they have

no c:lkct. What happened? This frightening phenomenon is
called antibiotic resistance. Antibiotic resistance: is caused by
natural selection: Penicillin killed most of the pneumonia
bacteria, but a few penicillin-resistant bacteria survived. These
bacteria multiplied, and the: patient's infection came: back.-
only this time:, the bacteria are resistant to penicillin.
Antibiotics arc wonder drugs. When penicillin, the first
antibiotic, appeared, it dramatically cut the number of ill-
nesses and deaths resulting from bacterial infections. After
only a decade: of use:, however, the: first penicillin-resistant
bacterial strains appeared. Since then, antibiotic resistance:
has spread, with more and more bacterial populations be-
coming resistant to more and more: different antibiotics.
Diseases once easy to trc:at-cubc:rculosis, pneumonia, even
common childhood ailments such as car infc:ctionr.-arc:
now often resistant co multiple: antibiotics. In 2011 the
World Health Organization reported that about 440,000
new cases of multi-drug-rc:sisranc cubc:rculosis appear each
year, resulting in at least 150,000 deaths.
Some of the most dangerous antibiotic-resistant bacteria
are found in hospitals, where the use of many different types
of antibiotics allows widc:ly resistant strains ro evolve:. The
Centers fur Disc:asc: Control reported that in 2005, methicillin-
rc:sistant Staphykicoccus aureus (MRSA), a bacterial strain
that is resistant to most of the: antibiotics currently available,
was responsible for more than 94,000 life-threatening infec-
tions and 18,650 deaths in the United States alone:. And,
some MRSA strains arc: beginning to show resistance ro the
antibiotic vancomycin, often considered "the: drug oflasr
resort." Another worrisome: development is the emergence
of MRSA in the: wider community. Community-based
MRSA infections usually start as skin infections and spread
through skin-to-skin contact. Some: of these cases turn inro
"flc:sh-c:ating" disc:asc:, and ochers arc halted only by drastic

measures such as amputation. Environments with a higher
risk for community•basc:d MRSA infections include athletic
fucilitic:s, dorms, prisons, and day-care: centers, Compared to
people whose infections respond to antibiotics, people who
have: antibiotic-resistant infections require: longer hospital
stays and are more: likc:ly to die from their infections.
All antibiotic use has the potential of contributing co
resistance. However, resistance has bc:c:n greatly accdc:rated
by the overuse of antibiotics. Under pressure: from patients,
physicians may prescribe antibiotics for illnc:ssc:s that arc not
caused by bacteria. (Many common illnesses, such as colds,
flus, and masc sore throats, arc caused by viruses.) These anti-
biotics select for resistance: in the normal (non-disc:asc:-
causing) bacterial populations in our bodies, making it possible
for resistant genes to be transferred to discasc:-causing bacteria
that later invade the body. The: fuct that patients sometimes
stop taking their medications too soon contributes to the:
problem; chis selects for antibiotic-resistant strains
without providing the sustained dose that would accually
kill all the bacteria. Antibiotics arc also used heavily in the
livestock industry, where animals arc given antibiotics regu-
larly-even when they arc healthy-to promote: growth.
Unfurtunatc:ly, this practice: greatly promotes the evolution
of antibiotic resistance:. In recent years, reports of food-borne
illnesses caused by antibiotic-resistant bacteria have become
regular items in the news. For example:, in August 2011, an
outbrc:alc of antibiotic-resistant salmonella in ground turkey
caused at least 79 illnc:ssc:s and one death.
What can be done about antibiotic resistance? First,
humans must learn to use antibiotics wisdy, taking them
only when they arc needed-that is, for bacterial infections--
and then taking the entire course of treatment. Second,
physicians and veterinarians can promote: a socially respon•

siblc: approach to antibiotics by educating patients and
agriculturalists on the proper application of these drugs.
Third, antibiotics should not be: used to promote: growth
in livestock. In 2012, steps were finally taken to ban the
agricultural use of certain antibiotics. Finally, since many
antibiotics are less effective: now because: of resistance,
scientists must search for new antibiotics to take the place
of those char no longer do the job.
that adaptations are traits that make organisms good at living
and repro-
ducing in their environments. It's not enough to survive-you
also have
to reproduce! This male praying mantis may not have long to
live, but at
least he has a good chance of leaving offspring .
-
LEARNING OBJECTIVE
Explaln how an understanding of
genetics produced Insights about
the mechanisms of evolution and
the origin of genetic diversity.
• • •
• • •
•f&I Evolution and Genetics
• • •

S o far, we've seen how natural selection acts on organisms'
traits-giraffe neck length, cheetah speed, peppered moth color,
and so on. Traits are only pare of the story, though, because
what gees passed from parents co offspring
are not traits, but genes. The incorporation of modern genetics
(see Chapter 16)
into Darwin's theory of evolution took place in the middle of
the twentieth cen-
tury and produced many new insights about how populations
evolve.
The focus on genes led to a description of evolution as changes
in the allele
frequencies of genes over time. Allele frequencies describe how
common different
alleles are in a population. For example, the peppered moths we
discussed earlier
have a light allele (a} and a dark allele (A) for color. A
population with many light
moths and few dark moths might have allele frequencies of92%
a and 8% A. As
the habitat becomes more polluted, dark moths become more
common, and the
dark allele increases in frequency. In a polluted area, the allele
frequencies might
change to 5 % a and 95 % A.
We can describe natural selection in terms of allele frequencies
as well:
(1) There is variation in a gene when multiple alleles for that

gene exist within
a population. For example, in peppered moths there are two
alleles for color, A
and a. (2) A specific allele may give an organism an advantage
chat allows it to
reproduce more than other organisms in the population. In a
polluted habitat,
for example, the A allele is advantageous. (3) As a result, more
copies of the
advantageous allele are passed to the next generation, and the
frequency of the
advantageous allele increases in the population. In a polluted
habitat, the frequency
of the A allele increases.
Notice that, although natural selection affects genes and allele
frequencies, natural selection does not act directly on genes.
Another
way to say this is: Natural selection acts on an organism's
phenotype
(traits), not on its genotype (genes). To see why, let's go back to
the
peppered moth. In peppered moths, the dark allele (A) is
dominant AA
and the light allele (a) is recessive. This means that both AA
moths
and Aa moths have dark wings (F~gure 17.21). Whether a bird
is likely to eat the
moth depends on the moth's phenotype (whether it is dark or
light), not its geno-
type. A bird is equally likely to eat a dark moth whether it has
genotype AA or Aa.
• • •
Aa

FIGURE 17.21
Natural selection acts on phenotype,
not genotype. In the case of these
two dark moths, it's the phenotype
(dark color} that matters, not the
genotype (AA versus Aa} .
498 PART THREE BIOLOGY • • •
Where Variation Comes From
Natural selection cannot happen without variation. Furthermore,
populations
with more variation have a better chance of adapting co a
changing environ-
ment. This is because with more variation, it is more likely chat
somewhere in
the population there are alleles chat will allow some individuals
co survive under
the new conditions. For instance, what would have happened to
peppered moths
during the Industrial Revolution if all the moths had been light
and none were
dark? In polluted areas, populations with only light moths might
have died out.
(In Chapter 21, we'll see that having many kinds of species in a
habitat also in-
creases the chance char at lease some organisms will survive
major changes in the
environment.)
But where does variation come from? An understanding of
genetics enabled

biologists co answer chis question. Genetic mutations (see
Chapter 16) constantly
create new variations within populations. For example, when a
genetic mutation
changes the amino acids in a protein, it may produce a new
allele for a given gene.
Sexual reproduction also contributes co variation by bringing
together alleles for
different traits in new combinations.
• • •
I .......
•fl=• Evidence of Evolution
EXPLAIN TH Is How do corn on the cob, a dog's dewclaw, and
the human
hand provide evidence for evolution?
A 11 scientific theories make predictions about what we should
observe in nature (see Chapter 1). If these predictions are
confirmed, the theory is supported. The theory of evolution has
been tested repeatedly against
observations of the natural world, and the evidence for
evolution is overwhelm-
ing. Eight main kinds of evidence support the idea that
evolution produced the
diversity <>f life on Earth: (1) observations of natural selection
in action, (2) arti-
ficial selection, (3) similarities in body structures, (4) vestigial
organs, (5) DNA
and molecular evidence, (6) patterns of development, (7)

hierarchical organiza-
tion of living things, (8) biogeography, and (9) fossils. We will
look at the first
eight topics here, and then consider fossils in Integrated Science
17C.
l. Observations of natural selection in action. In many cases,
scientists have seen
natural selection produce evolutionary changes in populations;
they have
observed and measured the actual changes in populations.
Examples include
some of the cases we have looked at: Australian rabbits evolved
resistance
to the myxoma virus, so that over time a smaller and smaller
fraction of
individuals died from the disease. Peppered moths evolved to
become better
camouflaged in their environments-dark moths became more and
more
common as habitats became polluted, and then became less and
less common
as pollution was cleaned up. Bacteria evolved resistance co
certain antibiotics,
so that these antibiotics no longer controlled infections.
Scientists have also
studied how the beaks of Darwin's finches evolve after a
drought, how insects
evolve resistance to pesticides, and natural selection in a wide
variety of other
populations.
2. Artificial selection. Artificial selection is the selective
breeding of organisms
with desirable traits in order to obtain organisms with similar
traits. Humans

artificially select for desirable traits in domesticated animals
and crops all the
time: We breed fast racehorses to try to get faster racehorses;
different types
of dogs to produce superior hunters, herders, or sled-pullers
(Figure 17.29);
and varieties of strawberries to grow the largest and sweetest
fruit. In artifi-
cial selection, humans control the reproductive success of
different organisms
and bring about distinct evolutionary changes in populations
over time. These
changes can be dramatic-think how much a Chihuahua differs
from the ani-
mal it is descended from, the wolf Or look ac Figure 17.30 co
see the difference
between the corn we eat today and teosinte, the plant from
which corn was
bred. Artificial selection has produced countless forms of
domestic animals
and crops, all with traits valued by humans.
3. Similarities in body structures. We see evidence of the
evolutionary histories
of species in the structures of their bodies. Consider, for
example, the limbs
of different mammals. Different mammals use their front limbs
for differ-
ent purposes: Humans use theirs as arms and hands for
manipulating tools,
cats use theirs to walk on, whales use theirs as flippers, and bats
use theirs
as wings. If each of these animals had originated independently,
we would
expect their limbs to look completely different. Each limb
would have been

designed from scratch to best perform its function. Bue, despite
the differ-
ent functions of human hands, cat legs, whale flippers, and bat
wings, all
these limbs show the same arrangement of bones (Figure 17.31).
This suggests
that the limbs were inherited from a common ancestor and then
modified
through natural selection for different functions.
LEARNING OBJECTIVE
List and provide examples of the
main kinds of evidence that support
the theory of evolution.
UNIFYING CONCEPT
• 'Ihe Scientific Method
Section 1.3
FIGURE 17.29
Artifkial selection has produced
great diversity in dogs.
FIGURE 17.30
Corn (below), one of the most
important agricultural crops in the
world, was laboriously bred through
artificial selection from teosinte
(above). Teosime has tiny cobs, only
a few rows of kernels, and inedible
hard coverings on its seeds.

A mouse ~nd a whale are about
as different as two mammals can
be. Yet just about every bone In
a mouse corresponds to a specific
bone In a whale. These slmllarltles
suggest that mice and whales had
a common ancestor and that their
skeletons were mod I fled over time
by natur~ selection to flt different
environments and ways of Ufe.
Maste ringPhysics •
TUTORIAL: Reconstructing Forelimbs
FIGURE 17.32
The Texas blind salamander lives in
lighdcss caves. It has tiny vestigial
eyes (dark dots in the photo) chat are
covered by skin.
A dog's dewclaw Is a vestigial organ.
The dewclaw Is a digit that appears
on the Inside of the front paws. It
does not reach the ground and has
no function. It Is just what remains
of a formerly functiona l toe.
Human
FIGURE 17.31
Cat Whale Bat
Although these mammalian limbs arc used for different
activities, they arc composed of

the same sec of bones, evidence chat they were inherited from a
common ancestor.
4. Vestigial organs. An organism's evolutionary history often
leaves traces in its
body. Some organisms have vestigial organs. Vestigial organs
are not functional-
they are just the remains of an organ found in the orga,11ism's
ancestor. For
example, we think of snakes as legless. But did you know that
certain snakes
actually have tiny, partial hind legs? The tiny stubs have no
purpose-they
are just the remains of what once were bigger limbs. A snake's
vestigial hind
legs provide evidence that snakes evolved from animals with
legs. in the same
way, many blind cave species lack functional eyes in their
lightless habitats but
retain vestigial eyes (Figure 17.32). These vestigial organs
suggest that cave
species evolved from animals with eyes.
5. DNA and molecular evidence. The DNA of related species
have similar nucle-
otide (ACGT) sequences. In fact, the more closely related rwo
species are, the
more similar their DNA sequences tend to be. This is true not
only for DNA
sequences that code for proteins, but even for sequences that
have no known
function. If each species on Earth had originated independently,
would we
expect to see similar noncoding DNA in related species? DNA
similarity
suggests that DNA did not originate independently in each

species but was
inherited from a common ancestor and then modified during
evolution.
6. Patterns of development. Related species develop in similar
ways. If each
species on Earth had originated independently, we wouldn't
expect these
similarities in development. For example, even though humans
have no
tails, we go through a tailed stage, just like other vertebrates
(Figure 17.33).
7. Hierarchical organization of living thin gr. Darwin's theory
of evolution explains
Earth's diversity of species as originating through numerous
speciation
events. If this is the case, then we expect living things to be
organized into
hierarchical sers of "nested groups"- that is, "groups within
groups." Each
living species should have fewer traits in common with more
distant rela-
tives, and more traits in common with species that it split off
from more
recently. This is in fact how living things on Earth are
organized. Humans,
for example, share a backbone with other vertebrates such as
fishes, amphib-
ians, reptiles, and mammals; they share four limbs with
terrestrial vertebrates
such as amphibians, reptiles, and mammals but not with fish,
which are more
distantly related; they share a waterproof skin with reptiles and
mammals

Turtle
FIGURE 17.33
Mouse Human
Related species go through similar stages in their development.
The human embryo goes
through a tailed stage just like the other vertebrates, even
though humans don't have tails.
Chick
but not with amphibians, which are more distancly related; and
they share the
trait of nursing their young with milk with other mammals but
not with the
more distancly related reptiles. Living things flt into a
hierarchical organization,
as predicted by evolution. We do not see traits scattered across
living things. For
example, we do not see a backbone in vertebrates plus some
worms and some
insects and some snails. The characteristics that organisms have
make sense
based on their evolutionary history and relationships.
8. Biogeography. Biogeography is the study of how species are
distributed on
Earth. Biogeography is consistent with evolution: It supports
rhe idea chat
organisms evolved in a certain place and then left descendants

in the places
where they were able to spread. Biogeography does not support
the idea that
organisms were specially designed to flt into a specific type of
habitat and
then distributed where these habitats occur on Earth. For
example, even
though the Arctic and Antarctic have similar environments, they
are occu-
pied by entirely different species (Figure 17.34). The same is
true for New
World tropical forests and Old World tropical forests.
What biogeography does show is that the ranges of many
species are
bounded by geographic barriers such as oceans or mountain
ranges. For
example, many organisms are restricted to a single continent. In
addition,
closely related species tend to be found close together,
suggesting that they
evolved in one place and then spread. For example, all of
Darwin's finches
FIGURE 17.34
The Arctic and Antarctic, which have similar habitats, are
occupied by very different spe·
des. Polar bears are found in the Arctic but not the Antarctic.
Penguins arc found in the
Antarctic but not the Arct ic.
Pig

FIGURE 17.35
Why arc terrestrial vertebrates rare or
absent from islands, whereas flying
species are common? This is rhc:
Hawaiian hoary bat, chc only mammal
found on Hawaii prior to human
colonization of the islands.
Explain how fossils provide
evidence of evolution.
arc found in or near the Galapagos, and all the honeycreepers
are found in
Hawaii. Similarly, island species are usually most closely
related to species
found on the closest mainland. Islands also tend to have fewer
species than
an equally sized area of the mainland, and many island species
are endemic,
meaning they are found nowhere else on Earth. Finally, islands
tend to be
occupied by many flying animals but few terrestrial ones
(Figure 17.35). All
these points suggest that organisms were not dispersed
purposefully around
Earth, but instead evolved in one place and then left
descendants where they
were able to spread.
CHECK YOURSELF
Why Is the fact that many species found on Islands resemble
species found
on the nearest mainland evidence for evolution?
CHECK YOUR ANSWER

This pattern suggests that island species evolved when some
mainland indi-
viduals colonized the island and then evolved in isolation,
rather than that
species were distributed purposefully around the Earth.
Integrated Science 17C
EARTH SCIENCE
Fossils: Earth's Tangible Evidence of Evolution
EXPLAIN TH 15 Why do fossil whales have legs?
E
volution has left a record in Earth's rocks-fossils. Because we
can dare
fossils from the age of the rock formations they belong to, we
can follow
the evolution of certain groups of organisms over time. For
example, fos-
sil whales show that whales are descended from hoofed
mammals. Fossil whales
also tell us how many key whale traits evolved. In Figure
17.36a, we can see how,
over time, whale nostrils moved from the front of the skull to
the top of the skull,
forming a blowhole. Fossil whales also show how whales lost
their hind legs as
they became more and more adapted to an aquatic existence.
The oldest whale
fossils, such as the 50-million-year-old Ambulocetus, have large
hind legs that
were used both on land and for swimming (Figure 17.36b).
Ambulocetus also has
small hooves on its front legs, providing clear evidence that

whales are descended
from hoofed mammals. Rhodocetus, a 46-million-year-old fossil
whale, shows
reduced hind legs-these are not attached to the backbone and so
could not
have supported much weight. Rhodocetus also shows prominent
tail muscles that
would have been effective for swimming. In the 40-
million~year~old Dorodon,
hind limbs are present, bur they are tiny: Dorodon was clearly a
fully aquatic spe-
cies. In modern whales, there is no evidence of hind limbs on
the outside of the
body, although tiny remnants of che pelvis and sometimes
femurs remain inside
the body.
Artiacetus
47 million years old
(a)
Prozeuglodon
Ambulocetus "4;;;c,:1~
Rhadocetus
(b)
Balaena

living today
FIGURE 17.36
lnia geaffrensis
Amazonian Dolphin living today
-
Fossil whales show how key features of these marine creatures
evolved over time. (a) These
foss il skulls show that che location of the nostrils shifted over
time, from a position in from of
the skull to a position on top of the skull- the "blowhole" seen
in modern species. (b) Fossil
whales also show the reduction and loss of hind legs over time.
You just learned that Archaeop·
teryx, the ancient bird, had clawed
wlngs. Most birds today do not have
claws on their wings, but there are
a few exceptions- the most famous
may be the hoatzln, whlch lives
In troplcal forests In the Ama~on.
Hoatzln chicks use their claws to
move along branches. In addition,
when threatened, they may drop
from one tree, swim or move to
another tree trunk, and then climb
back up using their claws.

LEARNING OBJECTIVE
Describe some fossil hominids and
what they reveal about the evolu-
tion of humans.
FIGURE 17.37
Archaeopteryx, an early bird, has features of both the dinosaurs
it evolved from and
modern birds.
Archaeopteryx, the famous ISO-million-year-old fossil bird
(Figure 17.37), also
shows intermediate traits in the evolution of birds from their
dinosaur ancestors.
Archaeopteryx has many birdlike features, such as feathers,
wings, and a wish-
bone. However, it also has dinosaur-like features absent in
modern birds, includ-
ing claws on its wings, bones in its tail, and teeth.
CHECK YOURSELF
How do fossil whales provide evidence for evolution?
CHECK YOUR ANSWER
Fossils show how key traits evolved in whales. For example, the
whale fossils
that have been found show traits that are intermediate between
the features
of the ancestors (nostrils in front of the skull and large
functional hind legs)
and present-day whales (a blowhole on top of the skull and tiny
vestigial
hind limbs).
•f&•The Evolution of Humans

EXPLAIN TH Is Is there a little bit of Neanderthal in you?
Humans are primates, a group of mammals that also includes the
mon~ keys and apes. This does not mean we are descended from
any modern species of monkey or ape, just that we share a
common ancestor with
these species more recently than we do with a dog, or a lizard,
or a plant. Humans
are also hominids, the group within the primates that includes
modern Homo
sapiens (our species) as well as some of our extinct relatives.
Although humans
are rhe only hominids in existence today, fossil hominids
provide dues as to how
humans evolved. A timeline of human evolution is shown in
Figure 17.38.
o .---:liislni1oiHm--Rnm;;---;--.--
o.5 ~====ttu:tm:.;RF~====7ia&7iF=l== ~~= r
1.0 ~====~ ~~= = =:f.i ~b:=;*==:HL
0
g1 1.5 ~ ;:::::i~'lmlllRi.itt&l~=+===11=:af.1!'1:#~ ~ • ~ ~
~!;i:::~
~
~ 2.0 F====;:!~i.4iP :=:=l== ==l!:== 4=~~~~-miriam~~~
'c 2.5
"' ~ 3.0 l,?irl~bF=====!~ ==~ ~ iJl!===~ ~ rs=========l
~ 3.5
4.0

4.5
FIGURE 17.38
This timeline shows when certain hominid species existed on
Earth. The skulls arc all
drawn to the same scale to show relative brain sizes.
Some of the earliest hominids known belong to the group
Australopithecus.
Fossil Australopithecus have been found at multiple sites in
Africa, where homi-
nids are believed to have originated. "Lucy," the famous
Australopithecus aforensis
fossil shown in Figure 17.39, dares from 3.2 million years ago.
When she was
alive, Lucy stood 3 feet 8 inches call and had a brain about the
size of a chimpan-
zee's. However1 che bones of Lucy's pelvis make it dear that
she walked upright
on two legs. In face, older Australopithecus fossils show that an
upright posture
dates to at lease 4 million years ago and therefore evolved long
before increased
brain size and intelligence.
Homo habilis is the earliest known species that belongs to che
group Homo,
which includes the species most closely related to modern
humans. Some Homo
habilis fossils are 2.2 million years old. Homo habilis had a
larger brain than
Australopithecus. Homo habilis also made stone tools-in face,
its scientific name
means "handy man." Male Homo habilis were much larger than

females. This
is interesting because in ocher primates, such as gorillas and
baboons, a big size
difference between males and females is a sign that males fight
each other for
female mates.
Homo erectus lived from about 2 million years ago to about
400,000 years
ago. Homo erectus had an even larger brain than Homo habilis.
In fact, the brain
of Homo erectus was not much smaller than that of modern
humans. Homo erectus
was a skilled toolmaker as well as the first hominid species ro
migrate out of
Africa and spread into much of what is now Europe and Asia.
Like Homo habilis,
older Homo erectus fossils show chat males were much larger
than females. How-
ever, lacer fossils of the same species show a male-female size
difference closer to
chat present in modern humans, suggesting the development of a
more humanlike
social system.
The Neanderthals-Homo sapiens neanderthalemis-are closely
related co
modern humans (Figure 17.40). They lived from about 200,000
years ago co
about 30,000 years ago. Neanderthals had very thick arms and
legs, and their
brains were as large as those of modern humans. Archaeological
finds show that
Neanderthals were effective hunters, had complex burial rituals,
and made use
of medicinal plants. One question chat remains unanswered is

whether the Ne-
anderthals had language. For thousands of years, modern
humans coexisted
with Neanderthals. However, Neanderthal populations
disappeared as modern
humans spread. Scientists are not sure why, although it seems
likely char modern
Humans are n9t descended from
any species of monkey or ape that
Is living today. However, we are
more closely related to monkeys
and apes than we are t o other anl-
ma ls. Desc~nded fn~m and related
to are entirely different .
Every creature alive now Is equally
evolved. Eve(y creature allve t Qcfoy
Is the product oht least 3:Siblllion
years of evolution. Humans are not
•more evolved" than·any other
species.
FIGURE 17.39
"Lucy," a fossi I Aurtralopithecus
afarensis, stood upright and walked
on two feet.
In one of the most spectacular
archaeological finds in centuries,
skeletons of a tiny human relative
were discoverea on a remote lndo·

nesran isl~nd In 2~. Nicknamed
whobbits, ~ Homo floreslensls adults
had skulls the size of grapefruits
and.were no blggerthan 3-year-old
modern chlldren. Homo floresiensis
llve<l,alongside pygmy eleptiants,
giant rod~n~. and Komodo drag·
ons. Mcist amazing is the fact that
they·still occupied the Island only
13,000 yeau ago, which means that
they coexisted with our own species.
FIGURE 17.40
Neanaerthals coexisted with modern
humans and interbred with them.
These reconstructions appear at the
Neanderthal Museum in Mettmann,
Germany.
humans outcompeted the Neanderthals and drove chem to
extinction. The de-
velopment of modern genetic techniques has allowed scientists
co collect infor-
mation about the Neanderthals from a new source- DNA.
Scientists are now
attempting co sequence the Neanderthal genome from fossil
remains. Genetic
studies have already revealed chat modern humans interbred
with Neanderthals
at some point in time; Neanderthal DNA accounts for at lease 1
%- 4% of the
genome of most humans.
The earliest fossils of modern humans, Homo sapiens sapims,
were found in
Ethiopia and are 195,000 years old. Although anatomically

modern humans are
quite old, the cultural traits we associate with humans- things
like art, music,
and religion- are more recent, appearing only about 50,000
years ago. The rea-
son for this gap between modern anatomy and modern behavior
is the subject of
continued debate.
CHECK YOURSELF
1. Have multiple species of hominids ever coexisted on Earth7
Do any
hominids other than humans survive to this day7
2. What is the significance of the transition from a large male-
female size
difference in early Homo erectus fossils to a size difference
closer to
that of modern humans In later fossils of the same specles7
3. What is the result of trillions and trillions of living things
passing genetic
traits to their offspring, here and there making an adaptive
change, and
surviving to today7
CHECK YOUR ANSWERS
1. The timellne of hominid evolution shows that multiple
species of homi-
nids coexisted during much of hominid history. Today,
however, humans
are the only species of hominids in existence. The others have
all
died out.

2. A large size difference between males and females is a sign
that males
fought each other for female mates. This may have been true in
early
Homo erectus. More equal body sizes in later Homo erectus
suggests
that mates and females had longer•term bonds, perhaps as they
raised
offspring together.
3. We and Earth's other living things are the result of this long
and
astounding journey!
For instructor•assigned homework, go to
www.masteringphysics.com e
SUMMARY OF TERMS (KNOWLEDGE)
Adaptations Evolved traits that make organisms well suited
to living and reproducing in their environments.
Allopatric speciatlon Speciation that occurs after a geographic
barrier divides a group of organisms into two isolated
populations.
Artificial selection The selective breeding of organisms with
desirable traits in order co produce offspring with the
same traits.
Autotrophs Living organisms that convert inorganic molecules
into food and organic molecules.
Evolution Inherited changes in populations of organisms
over time.

Fitness The number of offspring an organism produces in ics
lifetime compared co other organisms in the population.
Gene flow The evolution of a population due co the movement
of alleles into or out of the population.
Genetic drift The evolution of a population due to chance.
Heritable Description of traits that are passed from parents
to offspring because they are at least partially determined
by genes.
Heterotrophs Living organisms that obtain energy and
organic molecules from other living organisms or other
organic materials.
Natural selection The process in which organisms with
heritable, advantageous traits leave more offspring
than organisms with other traits, causing these
• •
CHAPTER 17 THE EVOLUTION OF LIFE
advantageous traits to become more common in a
population over time.
Speciation The formation of new species.
511
Species A group of organisms whose members can breed
with one another but not with members of other species.

Sympatric speciation Speciation that occurs without geo-
graphic isolation.
Variation Differences in a trait from one individual to
another.
•
Humber College Library
205 Humber College Blvd
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"Why Are
All the
Black Kids
Sitting
Together
in the
Cafeteria?"
And Other Conversations
About Race
Beverly Daniel Tatum, Ph.D.
B
BOOKS
A Member of the Perseus Books Group
Copyright © 1997 by Beverly Daniel Tatum, Ph.D.
1999 Introduction copyright© 1999 by Beverly Daniel Tatum,

Ph.D.
Epilogue copyright © 2003 by Beverly Daniel Tatum, Ph.D.
Published by Basic Books,
A Member of the Perseus Books Group
All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America.
No part of this book may be used in any manner whatsoever
without written per-
mission except in the case of brief quotations embodied in
critical articles and
reviews. For information, address Basic Books, 387 Park
Avenue South, New Yor~,
NY 10016.
Designed by Peng Olaguera.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Tatum, Beverly Daniel.
"Why ai:e all the Black kids sitting together in the cafeteria?"
and other
conversations about race / Beverly Daniel Tatum. - rev. ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN-10 0-465-08361-7; ISBN-13 978-0-465-08361-9
1. Afro-Americans-Race identity. 2. Whites-United States-Race
identity.
3. Afro-Americans-Psychology. 4. Whites-United States-
Psychology.
5. Race awareness-United States. 6. United States-Race

relations. I. Title
E185.625.T38 1997
305.8'00973-dc21 97-23119
DHSB 20 19 18 17 16 15
2
----------------------------------------The Complexity of Identity
"Who am I?"
The concept of identity is a complex one, shaped by individual
char-
acteristics, family dynamics, historical factors, and social and
political
contexts. Who am I? The answer depends in large part on who
the
world around me says I am. Who do my parents say I am? Who
do
my peers say I am? What message is reflected back to me in the
faces
and voices of my teachers, my neighbors, store clerks? What do
I learn
from the media about myself? How am I represented in the
cultural
images around me? Or am I missing from the picture altogether?
As
social scientist Charles Cooley pointed out long ago, other
people are
the mirror in which we see ourselves.'
This "looking glass self" is not a flat one-dimensional
reflection,
but multidimensional. Because the focus of this book is racial

iden-
tity in the United States, race is highlighted in these pages. Yet,
how
one's racial identity is experienced will be mediated by other
dimen-
sions of oneself: male or female; young or old; wealthy, middle-
class,
or poor; gay, lesbian, bisexual, transgender, or heterosexual;
able-
bodied or with disabilities; Christian, Muslim, Jewish,
Buddhist,
Hindu, or atheist.
Abigail Stewart and Joseph Healy's research on the impact of
his-
torical periods on personality development raises the question,
Who
is my cohort group?2 Am I a child of the Depression, a survivor
of
World War II, the Holocaust, the U.S. internment of Japanese
Americans? A product of the segregation of the 1940s and
1950s, or
a beneficiary of the Civil Rights era? Did I serve in the Vietnam
War,
or am I a refugee of it? Did I come of age during the
conservatism of
the Reagan years? Did I ride the wave of the Women's
Movement?
18
The Complexity of Identity 19
Was I born before or after Stonewall and the emergence of gay
activism? What historical events have shaped my thinking?

What has my social context been? Was I surrounded by people
like myself, or was I part of a minority in my community? Did I
grow
up speaking standard English at home or another language or
dialect?
Did I live in a rural county, an urban neighborhood, a sprawling
sub-
urb, or on a reservation?
Who I am (or say I am) is a product of these and many other
fac-
tors. Erik Erikson, the psychoanalytic theorist who coined the
term
identity crisis, introduced the notion that the social, cultural,
and his-
torical context is the ground in which individual identity is
embed-
ded. Acknowledging the complexity of identity as a concept,
Erikson
writes,
We deal with a process "located" in the core ef the individ-
ual and yet also in the core of his communal culture . ... In
psychological terms, identity formation employs a
process of simultaneous reflection and observation, a
process taking place on all levels of mental functioning,
by which the individual' judges himself in the light of
what he perceives to be the way in which others judge
him in comparison to themselves and to a typology sig-
nificant to them; while he judges their way of judging
him in the light of how he perceives himself in com-
parison to them and to types that have become relevant
to him. This process is, luckily, and necessarily, for the
most part unconscious except where inner conditions

and outer circumstances combine to aggravate a painful,
or elated, "identity-consciousness."3
Triggered by the biological changes associated with puberty, the
maturation of cognitive abilities, and changing societal
expectations,
this process of simultaneous reflection and observation, the
self-
creation of one's identity, is commonly experienced in the
United
20 A Definition of Terms
States and other Western societies during the period of
adolescence. 4
Though the foundation of identity is laid in the experiences of
child-
hood, younger children lack the physical and cognitive
development
needed to reflect on the self in this abstract way. The adolescent
capac-
ity for self-reflection (and resulting self-consciousness) allows
one to
ask, "Who ani I now?" "Who was I before?" "Who will I
become?"
The answers to these questions will influence choices about who
one's romantic partners will be, what type of work one will do,
where
one will live, and what belief system one will embrace. Choices
made
in adolescence ripple throughout the lifespan.

--------------------------Who Am I? Multiple Identities
Integrating one's past, present, and future into a cohesive,
unified sense
of self is a complex task that begins in adolescence and
continues for
a lifetime. The complexity of identity is made clear in a
collection of
autobiographical essays about racial identity called Names 1#
Call
Home.5 The multiracial, multiethnic group of contributors
narrate life
stories highlighting the intersections of gender, class, religion,
sexual-
ity, race, and historical circumstance, and illustrating that
"people's
multiple identifications defy neat racial divisions and
unidimensional
political alliances."6 My students' autobiographical narratives
point to
a similar complexity, but the less developed narratives of the
late ado-
lescents that I teach highlight the fact that our awareness of the
com-
plexity of our own identity develops over time. The salience of
par-
ticular aspects of our identity varies at different moments in our
lives.
The process of integrating the component parts of our self-
definition
is indeed a lifelong journey.
Which parts of our identity capture our attention first? While
there are surely idiosyncratic responses to this question, a

classroom
exercise I regularly use with my psychology students reveals a
telling
pattern. I ask my students to complete the sentence, "I am
_____ ;• using as many descriptors as they can think of in sixty
seconds. All kinds of trait descriptions are used-friendly, shy,
assertive, intelligent, honest, and so on-but over the years I
have
noticed something else. Students of color usually mention their
racial
or ethnic group: for instance, I am Black, Puerto Rican, Korean
American. White students who have grown up in strong ethnic
enclaves occasionally mention being Irish or Italian. But in
general,
White students rarely mention being White. When I use this
exercise
in coeducational settings, I notice a similar pattern in terms of
gen-
der, religion, and sexuality. Women usually mention being
female,
while men don't usually mention their maleness. Jewish students
often say they are Jews, while mainline Protestants rarely
mention
their religious identification. A student who is comfortable
revealing
it publicly may mention being gay, lesbian, or bisexual. Though
I
know most of my students are heterosexual, it is very unusual
for any-
one to include their heterosexuality on their list.

Common across these examples is that in the areas where a per-
son is a member of the dominant or advantaged social group, the
cat-
egory is usually not mentioned. That element of their identity is
so
taken for granted by them that it goes without comment. It is
taken
for granted by them because it is taken for granted by the
dominant
culture. In Eriksonian terms, their inner experience and outer
cir-
cumstance are in harmony with one another, and the image
reflected
by others is similar to the image within. In the absence of
dissonance,
this dimension of identity escapes conscious attention.
The parts of our identity that do capture our attention are those
that other people notice, and that reflect back to us. The aspect
of
identity that is the target of others' attention, and subsequently
of our
own, often is that which sets us apart as exceptional or" other"
in their
eyes. In my life I have been perceived as both.A precocious
child who
began to read at age three, I stood out among my peers because
of my
reading ability. This "gifted" dimension of my identity was
regularly
commented upon by teachers and classmates alike, and quickly
became part of my self-definition. But I was also distinguished
by
being the only Black student in the class, an "other," a fact I
grew
increasingly aware of as I got older.

While there may be countless ways one might be defined as
exceptional, there are at least seven categories of "otherness"
com-
monly experienced in U.S. society. People are commonly
defined as
other on the basis of race or ethnicity, gender, religion, sexual
orien-
tation, socioeconomic status, age, and physical or mental
ability. Each
of these categories has a form of oppression associated with it:
racism,
sexism, religious oppression/anti-Semitism,7 heterosexism,
classism,
ageism, and ableism, respectively. In each case, there is a group
con-
sidered dominant (systematically advantaged by the society
because of
group membership) and a group considered subordinate or
targeted
(systematically disadvantaged). When we think about our
multiple
identities, most of us will find that we are both dominant and
target-
ed at the same time. But it is the targeted identities that hold
our
attention and the dominant identities that often go unexamined.
In her essay, "Age, Race, Class, and Sex: Women Redefining
Difference;' Audre Lorde captured the tensions between
dominant

and targeted identities co-existing in one individual. This self-
described "forty-nine-year-old Black lesbian feminist socialist
mother of two" wrote,
Somewhere, on the edge of consciousness, there is what
I call a mythical norm, which each one of us within our
hearts knows "that is not me." In america, this norm is
usually defined as white, thin, male, young, heterosexu-
al, christian, and financially secure. It is with this myth-
ical norm that the trappings of power reside within
society. Those of us who stand outside that power often
identify one way in which we are different, and we
assume that to be the primary cause of all oppression,
forgetting other distortions around difference, some of
which we ourselves may be practicing.8
Even as I foct1cs on race and racism in my own writing and
teach-
ing, it is helpful to remind myself and my students of the other
dis-
tortions around difference that I (and they) may be practicing. It
is an
especially useful way of generating empathy for our mutual
learning
process. If I am impatient with a White woman for not
recognizing
her White privilege, it may be useful for me to remember how
much
of my life I spent oblivious to the fact of the daily advantages I
receive
simply because I am heterosexual, or the ways in which I may

take
my class privilege for granted.
Domination and Subordination
It is also helpful to consider the commonality found in the
experi-
ence of being dominant or subordinate even when the sources of
domin,ance or subordination are different.Jean Baker Miller,
author of
Toward a New Psychology of Women, has identified some of
these areas
of commonality.9
Dominant groups, by definition, set the parameters within which
the subordinates operate. The dominant group holds the power
and
authority in society relative to the subordinates and determines
how
that power and authority may be acceptably used. Whether it is
reflected in determining who gets the best jobs, whose history
will be
taught in school, or whose relationships will be validated by
society,
the dominant group has the greatest influence in determining the
structure of the society.
The relationship of the dominants to the subordinates is often
one in which the targeted group is labeled as defective or
substandard
in significant ways. For example, Blacks have historically been
charac-
terized as less intelligent than Whites, and women have been
viewed

as less emotionally stable than men. The dominant group
assigns roles
to the subordinates that reflect the latter's devalued status,
reserving
the most highly valued roles in the society for themselves.
Subordinates are usually said to be innately incapable of being
able to
perform the preferred roles. To the extent that the targeted
group
internalizes the images that the dominant group reflects back to
them,
they may find it difficult to believe in their own ability.
When a subordinate demonstrates positive qualities believed to
be more characteristic of dominants, the individual is defined
by
dominants as an anomaly. Consider this illustrative example:
Following a presentation I gave to some educators, a White man
approached me and told me how much he liked my ideas and
how
articulate I was. "You know," he concluded, "if I had had my
eyes
closed, I wouldn't have known it was a Black woman speaking."
(I
replied, "This is what a Black woman sounds like.")
The dominant group is seen as the norm for humanity.Jean
Baker
Miller also asserts that inequitable social relations are seen as
the
model for "normal human relationships." Consequently, it

remains
perfectly acceptable in many circles to tell jokes that denigrate
a par-
ticular group, to exclude subordinates from one's neighborhood
or
work setting, or to oppose initiatives which might change the
power
balance.
Miller points out that dominant groups generally do not like to
be reminded of the existence of inequality. Because
rationalizations
have been created to justify the social arrangements, it is easy
to
believe everything is as it should be. Dominants "can avoid
awareness
because their explanation of the relationship becomes so well
inte-
grated in other terms; t_hey can even believe that both they and
the sub-
ordinate group share the same interests and, to some extent, a
com-
mon experience." 10
The· truth is that the dominants do not really know what the
experience of the subordinates is. lri contrast, the subordinates
are
very well informed about the dominants. Even when firsthand
expe-
rience is limited by social segregation, the number and variety
of
images of the dominant group available through television,
maga-
zines, books, and newspapers provide subordinates with plenty
of

information about the dominants. The dominant world view has
sat-
urated the culture for all to learn. Even the Black or Latino
child liv-
ing in a segregated community can enter White homes of many
kinds
daily via the media. However, dominant access to information
about
the subordinates is often limited to stereotypical depictions of
the
"other." For example, there are many images of heterosexual
relations
on television, but very few images of gay or lesbian domestic
part-
nerships beyond the caricatures of comedy shows. There are
many
images of White men and women in all forms of media, but
rela-
tively few portrayals of people of color.
Not only is there greater opportunity for the subordinates to
learn about the dominants, there is also greater need. Social
psychol-
ogist Susan Fiske writes, "It is a simple principle: People pay
attention
to those who control their outcomes. In an effort to predict and
pos-
sibly influence what is going to happen to them, people gather
infor-
mation about those with power." 11
In a situation of unequal power, a subordinate group has to
focus

on survival. It becomes very important for the subordinates to
become highly attuned to the dominants as a way of protecting
them-
selves from them. For example, women who have been battered
by
men often talk about the heightened sensitivity they develop to
their
partners' moods. Being able to anticipate and avoid the men's
rage is
important to survival.
Survival sometimes means not responding to oppressive
behavior
directly. To do so could result in physical harm to oneself, even
death.
In his essay "The Ethics of Living Jim Crow," Richard Wright
describes eloquently the various strategies he learned to use to
avoid
the violence ofWhites who would brutalize a Black person who
did
not "stay in his place."12 Though it is tempting to think that the
need
for such strategies disappeared with Jim Crow laws, their legacy
lives
on in the frequent and sometimes fatal harassment Black men
expe-
rience at the hands ofWhite police officers. 13
Because of the risks inherent in unequal relationships, the
subor-
dinates often develop covert ways of resisting or undermining
the
power of the dominant group. As Miller points out, popular
culture is
full of folk tales, jokes, and stories about how the subordinate--

whether the woman, the peasant, or the sharecropper-outwitted
the
"boss."14 In his essay "I Won't l.earn from You," Herbert Kohl
identifies one form of resistance, "not-learning," demonstrated
by tar-
geted students who are too often seen by their dominant
teachers as
"others."
Not-learning tends to take place when someone has to
deal with unavoidable challenges to her or his personal
and family loyalties, integrity, and identity. In such situ-
ations, there are forced choices and no apparent middle
ground. To agree to learn from a stranger who does not
respect your integrity causes a major loss of self. The
only alternative is to not-learn and reject their world. 15
The use of either strategy, attending very closely to the
dominants
or not attending at all, is costly to members of the targeted
group.
Not-learning may mean there are needed skills which are not
acquired. Attending closely to the dominant group may leave
little
time or energy to attend to one's self.Worse yet, the negative
messages
of the dominant group about the subordinates may be
internalized,
leading to self-doubt or, in its extreme form, self-hate. There
are many

examples of subordinates attempting to make themselves over in
the
image of the dominant group-Jewish people who want to change
the Semitic look of their noses, Asians who have cosmetic
surgery to
alter the shape of their eyes, Blacks who seek to lighten their
skin
with bleaching creams, women who want to smoke and drink
"like a
man."Whether one succumbs to the devaluing pressures of the
dom-
inant culture or su,ccessfully resists them, the fact is that
dealing with
oppressive systems from the underside, regardless of the
strategy, is
physically and psychologically taxing.
Breaking beyond the structural and psychological limitations
imposed on one's group is possible, but not easily achieved. To
the
extent that members of targeted groups do push societal limits-
achieving unexpected success, protesting injustice, being
"uppity"-
by their actions they call the whole system into question. Miller
writes, they "expose the inequality, and throw into question the
basis
for its existence. And they will make the inherent conflict an
open
conflict. They will then have to bear the burden and take the
risks that
go with being defined as 'troublemakers."' 16

The history of subordinate groups is filled with so-called
troublemakers, yet their names are often unknown. Preserving
the
record of those subordinates and their dominant allies who have
chal-
lenged the status quo is usually of little interest to the dominant
cul-
ture, but it is of great interest to subordinates who search for an
empowering reflection in the societal mirror.
Many of us are both dominant and subordinate. Clearly racism
and racial identity are at the center of discussion in this book,
but as
Audre Lorde said, from her vantage point as a Black lesbian,
"There
is no hierarchy of oppression."The thread and threat of violence
runs
through all of the isms. There is a n~ed to acknowledge each
other's
pain, even as we attend to our own.
For those readers who are in the dominant racial category, it
may
sometimes be difficult to take in what is being said by and
about those
who are targeted by racism. When the perspective of the
subordinate
is shared directly, an image is reflected to members of the
dominant
group which is disconcerting. To the extent that one can draw
on
one's own experience of subordination-as a young person, as a
per-

son with a disability, as someone who grew up poor, as a
woman-it
may be easier to make meaning of another targeted group's
experi-
ence. For those readers who are targeted by racism and are
angered by
the obliviousness of Whites sometimes described in these pages,
it
may be useful to attend to your experience of dominance where
you
may find it-as a heterosexual, as an able-bodied person, as a
Christian, as a man-and consider what systems of privilege you
may
be overlooking. The task of resisting our own oppression does
not
relieve us of the responsibility of acknowledging our complicity
in
the oppression of others.
Our ongoing examination of who we are in our full humanity,
embracing all of our identities, creates the possibility of
building
alliances that may ultimately free us all. It is with that vision in
mind
that I move forward with an examination of racial identity in the
chapters to follow. My goal is not to flatten the
multidimensional self-

reflection we see of ourselves, but to focus on a dimension
often
neglected and discounted in the public discourse on race.
• • •
246 Notes
• • •
Chapter 2
1. See C. Cooley, Human nature and the social order (New
York: Scribner,
1922). George H. Mead expanded on this idea in his book,
Mind, self, and
society (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1934). .
2. A. J. Stewart and J. M. Healy, "Linking individual
development and social
changes," American Psychologist 44, no. 1 (1989): 30-42.
3. E. ff Erikson, Identity, youth, and crisis (New York: WW
Norton, 1968),
~n. . .
4. For a discussion of the Western biases in the concept of the
self and mdt-
vidual identity, see A. Roland, "Identity, self, and individualism
in a multi-
cultural perspective," pp. 11-23 in E. P Salett and D.R. Koslow
(Eds.), Race,
ethnicity, and self: Identity in multicultural perspective
(Washington, DC: National
MultiCultural Institute, 1994).
5. B.Thompson and S.Tyagi (Eds.), Names we call
home:Autobiography on racial

identity (NewYork: Routledge, 1996).
6. Ibid., p. xi.
7. Anti-Semitism is a term commonly used to describe the
oppression of
Jewish people. However, other Semitic peoples (Arab Muslims,
for example)
are also subject to oppressive treatment on the basis of ethnicity
as well as reli-
gion . For that reason, the terms Jewish oppression and Arab
oppression are some-
times used to specify the particular form of oppression under
discussion.
8. A. Larde, "Age, race, class, and sex: Women redefining
difference," pp.
445-51 in P. Rothenberg (Ed.), Race, class, and gender in the
United States: An
integrated stud)~ 3d ed. (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1995),
p. 446.
9.J. B. Miller, "Domination and subordination," pp. 3-9 in
Toward a new psy-
chology of women (Boston: Beacon Press, 1976).
10.Ibid., p. 8.
11. S. T. Fiske, "Controlling other people: The impact of power
on
stereotyping," American Psychologist 48, no. 6 (1993): 621-28.
Notes 245
14. PL.Van den Berghe, Race and racism (NewYork:Wiley,
1967) .
15. See R. Alba, Ethnic identity: The transformation of White
America (New
Haven: Yale University Press, 1990).

16. For a discussion of the census classification debate and the
history of
racial classification in the United States, see L.Wright, "One
drop of blood,"
The New Yorker Ouly 25, 1994): 46-55.
• • •
The evolution of life.
The main purpose: Understanding how we can use ideas from
biology to find out the manner in which are physical identity is
determined by natural selection. Evolution is clearly a story
about every change to living organisms over long periods of
time we can not understand evolution if we to not focus upon
the importance of natural selection and adaptation. Evidence of
both, natural selection and adoption is very common. Thus,
when we recognize that tails of marine iguanas are long and
flattened we are recognizing that an important part of the
physical structure of that animal which enables it to swim very
well has been formed over many many generations when we
observe the result of battles between lathe animals in the wild
one thing we notice is that the winner of the duel/battles is able
to mate and produce a spring fit to survive.
The story of evolution is also the story of the best fit.
Organisms not strong enough to survive are not likely to mate
and produce surviving off spring. Natural selection is central to
evolution without it there can be no evolution. Natural selection
occur in organisms large and small. And provides us with clear
evidence of survival of the best fit. Thus, antibiotic resistance
to many drugs is an example of natural selection in action.
How many of us are aware that tubercle very evident today right
across the world but especially in poor developing societies, is
also created with antibiotics resistance?
When we read about first success then failure against the

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