Schizophrenia is a severe brain disorder that disturbs natural brain function and can cause hallucinations, delusions, and disorganized thinking. It affects around 1% of adults globally. While the exact causes are unknown, it is thought to involve genetic and environmental factors interacting to impact brain development. Schizophrenia is diagnosed based on symptoms and can be managed through long-term treatment, though it has no cure.

1. facts on schizophrenia
Other folks may find it hard to make sense of what a individual with schizophrenia is talking about.
In some cases, the individual may spend hours totally still, without chatting. On other occasions
he or she may seem fine, until they begin describing what they are really thinking.
The consequences of schizophrenia reach far beyond the person afflicted - schizophrenia does
not only affect the person with the ailment. Families, acquaintances and society are influenced
too. A considerable percentage of people with schizophrenia have to rely on other people, since
they are unable to keep a job or care for themselves.
With adequate treatment, patients can lead positive lives, treatment can help relieve many of the
signs and symptoms of schizophrenia. But, a lot of sufferers with the illness have to cope with the
signs and symptoms for life. This does not imply that a individual with schizophrenia who receives
treatment cannot lead a rewarding, constructive and meaningful life in his or her society.
Schizophrenia most commonly strikes between the ages of 15 to 25 among men, and about 25 to
35 in women. On most occasions the condition develops so gradually that the sufferer does not
know he/she has it for a very long time. While, with other people it can assault unexpectedly and
develop fast.
Schizophrenia, probably many illnesses combined - it is a multipart, chronic, harsh, and disabling
brain dysfunction and impacts around 1% of all grown persons globally. Experts say
schizophrenia is perhaps many illnesses camouflaged as one. Research indicates that
schizophrenia is likely to be the result of flawed neuronal development in the brain of the foetus,
which later in life comes out as a full-blown ailment.
Schizophrenia affects males and women equally. However, an article in the BMJ says that
schizophrenia impacts 1.4 males for every 1 woman.
The Schizophrenic Disorders Clinic at the Stanford School of Medicine describes schizophrenia
as "a thought disorder: a brain ailment that disturbs with a man or woman's capability to think
naturally, regulate emotions, make decisions, and relate to other people."
Schizophrenia is a severe brain ailment that disturbs with natural brain and intellectual function. it
can induce hallucinations, delusions, paranoia, and significant absence of motivation. Without
management, schizophrenia affects the ability to think clearly, manage feelings, and intermingle
correctly with other people. It is frequently crippling and can profoundly impact all areas of your
life (let's say, becoming not able to labor or go to school). Being told that you or someone you
love has schizophrenia can be scary or even disastrous. The excellent way to perk up your quality
of life with schizophrenia is to learn as much as you can about this condition and then adhere to
the advised management.
There are several forms of schizophrenia, and the detailed kinds are identified based upon signs.

2. The nearly all common category is paranoid schizophrenia, which triggers fearful thoughts and
hearing terrifying voices.
Schizophrenia does not include multiple personalities and is not the same condition as
dissociative identity ailment (also called multiple personality condition or split personality).
What causes schizophrenia? There are many theories about the cause of schizophrenia, but
none have yet been verified. Schizophrenia may be a genetic illness, since your chances of
developing schizophrenia increase if you have a parent or sibling with the condition, but most
people with relatives who have schizophrenia will not develop it. It may also be associated to
problems encountered during pregnancy (such as lack of nutrition, or being exposed to a viral
infection) that harms the unborn child's developing nervous system. John Nash, an American
mathematician who worked at Princeton University, won the Nobel Prize in Economics and lived
with paranoid schizophrenia nearly all of his life. He finally handled to live without medicine. A film
was made of his life "A Beautiful Mind", which Nash says was "loosely accurate". A study posted
in The Lancet found that schizophrenia with active psychosis is the third most disabling condition
after quadriplegia and dementia, and ahead of blindness and paraplegia. The word schizophrenia
comes from the Greek word skhizein meaning "to split" and the Greek word Phrenos (phren)
meaning "diaphragm, heart, mind". In 1910, the Swiss psychiatrist, Eugen Bleuler (1857-1939)
coined the term Schizophrenie in a lecture in Berlin on April 24th, 1908.
Nobody has been able to figure out one single cause. Specialists believe several factors are
generally involved in contributing to the onset of schizophrenia. The possibly factors do not work
in isolation, either. Data does suggest that genetic and environmental factors usually act together
to cause schizophrenia. Evidence pointed out that the diagnosis of schizophrenia has an inherited
element, but it is also significantly influenced by environmental triggers. In other words, just think
about your body is full of buttons, and some of those buttons result in schizophrenia if somebody
comes and presses them enough times and in the right sequences. The buttons would be your
genetic susceptibility, while the person pressing them would be the environmental variables.
Your genes. If there is no historical past of schizophrenia in your family your chances of
developing it are less than 1%. However, that danger rises to 10% if one of your parents was/is a
patient. A gene that is probably the nearly all studied "schizophrenia gene" plays a astonishing
role in the brain: It manages the birth of new neurons along with their integration into existing
brain circuits, according to an article posted by Cell. A Swedish study found that schizophrenia
and bipolar condition have the same genetic causes. Thirteen locations in the human genetic
code may help demonstrate the cause of schizophrenia - a reasearch involving 59,000 people,
5,001 of whom had been clinically determined with schizophrenia, identified 22 genome locations,
with 13 new ones that are thought to be involved in the development of schizophrenia. The
scientists added that of particular importance to schizophrenia were two genetically-determined

3. processes - the "micro-RNA 137" pathway and the "calcium channel pathway". Principal
investigator, Professor Patrick Sullivan, of the Center for Psychiatric Genomics at the University of
North Carolina School of Medicine, said "This reasearch gives us the best picture to date of two
dissimilar pathways that might be going wrong in people with schizophrenia. Now we need to
concentrate our research very immediately on these two pathways in our pursuit to comprehend
what brings about this crippling mental sickness."
Chemical inequality in the brain. Specialists believe that an imbalance of dopamine, a
neurotransmitter, is involved in the onset of schizophrenia. They also believe that this imbalance
is nearly all possibly brought about by your genes making you vulnerable to the illness. Some
research workers say other the levels of other neurotransmitters, such as serotonin, may also be
involved. Changes in key brain functions, for example perception, emotion and behavior lead
experts to conclude that the brain is the biological site of schizophrenia. Schizophrenia could be
brought about by faulty signaling in the brain, according to study posted in the journal Molecular
Psychiatry.
Family interactions. Although there is no evidence to prove or even indicate that family
relationships might cause schizophrenia, some patients with the ailment believe family tension
may trigger relapses.
Environment. Although there is yet no definite proof, many suspect that prenatal or perinatal
trauma, and viral infections may contribute to the development of the disease. Perinatal means
"occurring about 5 months before and up to one month after birth". Stressful experiences
frequently precede the emergence of schizophrenia. Before any acute conditions are apparent,
people with schizophrenia habitually become bad-tempered, anxious, and unfocussed. This can
trigger relationship problems, divorce and unemployment. These factors are often blamed for the
start of the illness, when really it was the other way round - the illness brought about the crisis.
Therefore, it is extremely difficult to know whether schizophrenia triggered certain stresses or
occurred as a consequence of them.
Some drugs. Cannabis and LSD are known to cause schizophrenia relapses. According to the
State Government of Victoria in Australia, for people with a predisposition to a psychotic sickness
such as schizophrenia, usage of cannabis may trigger the first episode in what can be a disabling
condition that lasts for the rest of their lives. The National Library of Medicine says that some
prescription medicines, such as steroids and stimulants, can cause psychosis.
The brain. Our brain consists of billions of nerve cells. Each nerve cell has branches that give out
and receive messages from other nerve cells. The ending of these nerve cells release
neurotransmitters - forms of chemicals. These neurotransmitters carry messages from the
endings of one nerve cell to the nerve cell body of another. In the brain of a person who has
schizophrenia, this messaging system does not work properly.

4. Schizophrenia causes two groups of conditions: negative symptoms and positive signs. Negative
signs and symptoms generally include apathy or lack of motivation, self-neglect (such as not
bathing), and reduced or improper emotion (such as becoming angry with strangers). Negative
signs usually appear first and may be confused with depression. Positive signs and symptoms,
which generally appear later, include conditions such as hallucinations, delusions, and
disorganized or confusing thoughts and speech. signs and symptoms of schizophrenia usually
emerge in adolescence or early adulthood. symptoms can appear unexpectedly or may develop
gradually, often causing the illness to go unrecognized until it is in an advanced stage when it is
more difficult to treat.
How is schizophrenia identified? Schizophrenia is recognized primarily with a medical history and
a mental health assessment. Other tests, such as blood tests or imaging tests, may be done to
rule out other conditions that can mimic symptoms of schizophrenia.
How is schizophrenia treated? There is no remedy for schizophrenia, but many people can
successfully manage their symptoms with prescriptions and professional counseling. Consistent,
long-term management is very important to the effective management of schizophrenia. Unluckily,
people with schizophrenia frequently do not seek treatment or they stop management due to
repulsive unwanted side effects of drugs or lack of support.
There is, to date, no physical or laboratory test that can absolutely diagnose schizophrenia. The
doctor, a psychiatrist, will make a diagnosis based on the patient's clinical symptoms. However,
physical testing can rule out some other disorders and conditions which sometimes have similar
conditions, for example seizure disorders, thyroid dysfunction, brain tumor, drug use, and
metabolic disorders.
signs and symptoms and indications of schizophrenia will vary, depending on the individual. The
symptoms are classified into four categories: Positive signs - also known as psychotic signs and
symptoms. These are symptoms that appear, which people without schizophrenia do not have.
let's say, delusion. Negative conditions - these refer to elements that are taken away from the
individual; loss or absence of normal traits or talents that people without schizophrenia normally
have. as an example, blunted emotion. Cognitive symptoms - these are conditions within the
individual's thought processes. They may be positive or negative signs and symptoms, as an
example, poor concentration is a negative sign. Emotional signs - these are signs within the
individual's feelings. They are usually negative conditions, for example blunted emotions.
Below is a list of the major signs and symptoms:

5. Delusions - The sufferer has false beliefs of persecution, guilt of grandeur. He/she may feel things
are being controlled from outside. It is not uncommon for people with schizophrenia to describe
plots against them. They may think they have extraordinary powers and gifts. Some sufferers with
schizophrenia may hide in order to protect themselves from an imagined persecution.
Hallucinations - hearing voices is much more ordinary than seeing, feeling, tasting, or smelling
things which are not there, but appear very real to the person afflicted.
Thought condition - the man or woman may jump from one subject to another for no logical
reason. The speaker may be hard to follow. The patient's speech might be muddled and
incoherent. In some cases the sufferer may believe that somebody is messing with his/her mind.
Other conditions schizophrenia sufferers may experience include: Lack of motivation (avolition) -
the sufferer loses his/her drive. Everyday automatic actions, for example washing and cooking are
abandoned. It is significant that those close to the person afflicted understand that this loss of
drive is due to the ailment, and has nothing to do with slothfulness. Poor expression of emotions -
responses to happy or sad situations may be lacking, or improper. Social withdrawal - when a
person afflicted with schizophrenia withdraws socially it is often because he/she believes
somebody is going to harm them. Other reasons could be a fear of interacting with other humans
because of poor social skills. Unaware of biological disorder - as the hallucinations and delusions
appear so real for the patients, many of them may not believe they are unwell. They may refuse to
take drugs which could help them enormously for fear of side-effects, let's say. Cognitive
difficulties - the patient's ability to concentrate, remember things, plan ahead, and to organize
himself/herself are affected. Communication becomes more difficult.
Impaired eye movements linked to schizophrenia - research workers from the University of British
Columbia explained in the Journal of Neuroscience that people with schizophrenia find it harder to
follow a moving dot on a computer screen.
Tests and diagnosis: A schizophrenia diagnosis is carried out by observing the actions of the
person afflicted. If the doctor suspects possible schizophrenia, they will need to know about the
person afflicted's medical and psychiatric history. Certain tests will be ordered to rule out other
health problems and conditions that may trigger schizophrenia-like symptoms. Examples of some
of the tests may include: Blood tests - to determine CBC (complete blood count) as well as some
other blood tests. Imaging scientific tests - to rule out tumors, problems in the structure of the
brain, and other conditions/ailments. Psychological evaluation - a specialist will assess the
patient's mental state by asking about thoughts, moods, hallucinations, suicidal traits, dangerous
tendencies or potential for violence, as well as observing their demeanor and appearance.
Schizophrenia - Diagnostic Criteria: sufferers must meet the criteria laid down in the DSM
(Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders). It is an American Psychiatric Association
manual that is used by health care professionals to diagnose mental sicknesses and conditions.

6. The health care professional needs to exclude other possible mental health disorders, such as
bipolar disorder or schizoaffective disorder. It is also significant to establish that the signs and
symptoms have not been induced by, let's say, a prescribed medication, a medical condition, or
substance abuse. Also, the person afflicted must: Have at least two of the following typical signs
of schizophrenia - Delusions, Disorganized or catatonic behavior, Disorganized speech,
Hallucinations, Negative conditions that are present for much of the time during the last four
weeks. Experience considerable impairment in the capability to attend school, carry out their work
duties, or carry out every day tasks. Have signs which persist for six months or more. Sometimes,
the person with schizophrenia may find their signs frightening, and conceal them from other
people. If there is harsh paranoia, they may be suspicious of family or friends who try to help.
There are many elements in illness that make it difficult to confirm a schizophrenia diagnosis.
Collecting neurons from the nose to diagnose schizophrenia - research workers from Tel Aviv
University, Israel, reported in Neurobiology of illness that collecting neurons from the nose of the
sufferer may be a rapid way to test for schizophrenia. Noam Shomron of TAU's Sackler Faculty of
Medicine, and team describe how they devised a potential way of diagnosing schizophrenia by
testing microRNA molecules found in the neurons inside the patient's nose. A sample can be
taken via a simple biopsy. Shomron believes this could become a "more sure-fire" way of
diagnosing schizophrenia than ever before. It may also be a way of detecting the disastrous
disorder earlier on. Schizophrenia handling is usually much more effective if it can initiate during
the early stages.
Are autism and schizophrenia related? - when seen at first glance, autism and schizophrenia
appear to be totally dissimilar disorders. However, a discovery made by research workers at Tel
Aviv University's Sackler Faculty of Medicine and the Sheba Medical Center showed that the two
disorders have similar roots, and are linked to other mental conditions, such as bipolar ailment.
Both schizophrenia and autism share come traits, including a limited capability to lead a normal
life function in the real world, as well as cognitive and social dysfunction.
The scientists found a genetic link between the two disorders, which causes a higher danger
within family members. Dr. Mark Weiser and team found that people with a sibling with
schizophrenia had a twelve-fold higher chance of having autism than those without schizophrenia
in the family.
Schizophrenia genetically linked to four other mental sicknesses or disorders - researchers the
Cross Disorders Group of the Psychiatric Genomic Consortium reported that schizophrenia, major
depressive ailment, bipolar ailment, autism spectrum disorders, and ADHD (attention-deficit
hyperactivity condition) share the same typical inherited genetic faults.
Does schizophrenia begin in the womb? Stem cell reasearch says yes - research workers from
the Salk Institute in California have demonstrated that neurons from skin cells of patients with
schizophrenia behave oddly in early stages of development, supporting the theory that
schizophrenia begins in the womb.

7. The research workers, who published their results in the journal Molecular Psychiatry, say their
findings could provide clues for how to detect and treat the disease early. Research workers
identify genetic mutations that may cause schizophrenia - Schizophrenia impacts around 2.4
million grown persons in the US. The exact cause of the condition is unknown, but past study has
suggested that genetics may play a part. Now, investigators from the Columbia University Medical
Center in New York, NY, have uncovered clues that may build on this idea. The study team
published their findings in the journal Neuron.
Schizophrenia and cannabis use may have genetic link - There is growing evidence that cannabis
use is a cause of schizophrenia and now a new study led by King's College London, UK, also
finds increased cannabis use and schizophrenia may have genes in common.
How a genetic variation 'may increase schizophrenia danger' - The exact causes of schizophrenia
are unknown, but past study has suggested that some persons with the condition possess certain
genetic variations. Now, research workers at Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine in
Baltimore, MD, say they have begun to understand how one schizophrenia-related genetic
variation influences brain cell development. Researchers identify more than 80 new genes linked
to schizophrenia - What causes schizophrenia has long baffled scientists. But in what's deemed
the largest ever molecular genetic reasearch of schizophrenia, a team of international research
workers has pinpointed 108 genes linked to the condition - 83 of which are newly discovered -
that may help identify its causes and pave the way for new interventions. Schizophrenia 'made up
of eight specific genetic disorders' - Past studies have indicated that rather than being a single
ailment, schizophrenia is a collection of different disorders. Now, a new reasearch by research
workers at Washington University in St. Louis, MO, claims the condition consists of eight distinct
genetic disorders, all of which present their own specific signs. Brain network vulnerable to
Alzheimer's and schizophrenia identified - New study has emerged that reveals a specific brain
network - that is the last to develop and the first to show signs of neurodegeneration - is more
vulnerable to unhealthy aging as well as to disorders that emerge in young people, shedding light
on conditions such as Alzheimer's disease and schizophrenia.
treatment options: The UK's National Health Service4 says it is significant that schizophrenia is
recognized as early as possible, since the chances of a recovery are much greater the earlier it is
treated. Psychiatrists say the nearly all effectual treatment for schizophrenia patients is usually a
combination of medicine, psychological counseling, and self-help resources.
Anti-psychosis drugs have transformed schizophrenia management. Thanks to them, the majority
of sufferers are able to live in the society, rather than stay in hospital. In many parts of the world
care is delivered in the community, rather than in hospital. The primary schizophrenia handling is
medicine. Sadly, compliance is a major problem. Compliance, in medicine, means following the
medicine regimen. People with schizophrenia frequently go off their medication for long periods
during their lives, at huge personal costs to themselves and often to those around them as well.
The Cleveland Clinic says that the person afflicted must continue taking medication even when
signs are gone, otherwise they will come back. the majority of sufferers go off their medicine

8. within the first year of treatment. In order to address this, successful schizophrenia treatment
needs to consist of a life-long regimen of both drug and psychosocial, support therapies. The
medication can help control the patient's hallucinations and delusions, but it cannot help them
learn to communicate with others, get a job, and thrive in society. Although a significant number of
people with schizophrenia live in poverty, this does not have to be the case. A man or woman with
schizophrenia who complies with the management regimen long-term will be able to lead a happy
and positive life. The first time a person experiences schizophrenia symptoms can be very
upsetting. He/she may take a long time to recover, and that recuperation can be a lonely
experience. It is crucial that a schizophrenia sufferer gets the full support of his/her family, friends,
and society services when start appears for the first time.
medications: The medical management of schizophrenia generally involves medicines for
psychosis, depression and anxiety. This is because schizophrenia is a combination of thought
disorder, mood condition and anxiety illness. The most common antipsychotic drugs are
Risperidone (Risperdal), Olanzapine (Zyprexa), Quetiapine (Seroquel), Ziprasidone (Geodon),
and Clozapine (Clozaril): Risperidone (Risperdal) - introduced in America in 1994. This drug is
less sedating than other atypical antipsychotics. There is a elevated probability, compared to
other atypical antipsychotics, of extrapyramidal symptoms (affecting the extrapyramidal motor
system, a neural network located in the brain that is involved in the coordination of movement).
Although weight gain and diabetes are possible risks, they are less possibly to happen, compared
with Clozapine or Olanzapine. Olanzapine (Zyprexa) - approved in the USA in 1996. A typical
dose is 10 to 20 mg per day. risk of extrapyramidal symptoms is low, compared to Risperidone.
This drug may also improve negative conditions. However, the risks of serious weight gain and
the development of diabetes are significant. Quetiapine (Seroquel) - came onto the market in
America in 1997. Typical dose is between 400 to 800 mg per day. If the patient is resistant to
treatment the dose may be elevated. The risk of extrapyramidal signs is low, compared to
Risperidone. There is a danger of weight gain and diabetes, however the risk is lower than
Clozapine or Olanzapine. Ziprasidone (Geodon) - became available in the USA in 2001. Typical
doses range from 80 to 160 mg per day. This drug can be given orally or by intramuscular
administration. The danger of extrapyramidal symptoms is low. The danger of weight gain and
diabetes is lower than other atypical antipsychotics. However, it might contribute to cardiac
arrhythmia, and must not be taken together with other medicines that also have this side effect.
Clozapine (Clozaril) - has been available in the USA since 1990. A typical dose ranges from 300
to 700 mg per day. It is very effectual for patients who have been resistant to management. It is
known to lower suicidal behaviors. sufferers must have their blood regularly monitored as it can
impact the white blood cell count. The danger of weight gain and diabetes is significant.
How typical is schizophrenia? The prevalence of schizophrenia globally varies slightly, depending
on which report you look at, from about 0.7% to 1.2% of the adult population in general. Most of
these percentages refer to people suffering from schizophrenia "at some time during their lives".

9. An Australian study found that schizophrenia is more ordinary in developed nations than
developing ones. It also found that the biological disorder is less widespread than previously
thought. Estimates of 10 per 1,000 people should be changed to 7 or 8 per 1,000 people, the
reasearch concluded. In the USA about 2.2 million adults, or about 1.1% of the population age 18
and older in a given year have schizophrenia. Schizophrenia is not a 'very' typical ailment.
Approximately 1% of people throughout the globe suffer from schizophrenia (or perhaps a little
less than 1% in developing countries) at some point in their lives. It is estimated that about 1.2%
of Americans, a total of 3.2 million people, have the disorder at some point in their lives.
throughout the world, about 1.5 million people each year are recognized with schizophrenia. In
the UK it is estimated that about 600,000 people have schizophrenia.
Sometimes people understand psychosis or schizophrenia to be unrelenting, even with the
intervention of psychotherapy. It is contended herein that therapy, and humanistic therapy in
particular, can be helpful to the psychotic person, but, perhaps, the therapist may have difficulty
understanding how this approach can be applied to the problems of psychosis. Although it is a
prevalent opinion in our society that schizophrenics are not responsive to psychotherapy, it is
asserted herein that any therapist can relate in a psychotic person, and, if therapy is
unsuccessful, this failure may stem from the therapist's qualities instead of those of the psychotic
individual.
Carl Rogers created a theory and therapy indicated by the terms "umanistic theory" and "person-
centered remedy". This theoretical perspective postulates many essential thoughts, and several of
these ideas are pertinent to this discussion. The first of these is the idea of "conditions of worth",
and the idea of "the actualizing tendency." Rogers asserts that our society is applicable to us
"conditions of worth". This means that we must behave in certain ways in order to receive
rewards, and receipt of these rewards imply that we are worthy if we behave in methods that are
acceptable. As an example, in our society, we are rewarded with money when we do work that is
represented by employment.
In terms of the life of a schizophrenic, these conditions of worth are that from which stigmatization
proceeds. The psychotic individuals in our society, without intentionality, do not behave in
methods that produce rewards. Perhaps some people believe that schizophrenics are parasites in
relation to our society. This estimation of the worth of these human beings serves only to
compound their suffering. The mentally ill and psychotic individuals, in particular, are destitute in
social, personal and monetary spheres.
Carl Roger's disapproved of conditions of worth, and, in fact, he believed that human beings and
other organisms strive to fulfill their potential. This striving represents what Roger's termed "the
actualizing tendency" and the "force of life." This growth enhancing aspect of life motivates all life

10. forms to develop fully their own potential. Rogers believed that mental illness reflects distortions
of the actualizing tendency, based upon problematic conditions of worth. It is clear that psychotic
people deal with negatively skewed conditions of worth.
It is an evident reality that the mentally unwell could more successfully exist in the world if stigmas
were not applied to them. The mentally ill engage in self-denigration and self-laceration that
culminate in the destruction of selfhood. This psychological violence toward the mentally unwell is
supported by non-mentally unwell some others. The form of self-abuse by psychotic persons
would certainly abate if the normative dismissal of the mentally unwell as worthless is not
perpetuated.
In spite of a prevalent view that psychotic individuals are unsuccessful in the context of
psychotherapy, Roger's theory and therapy of compassion cannot be assumed to be unhelpful to
the mentally ill. The key components of Rogers' approach to psychotherapy include unconditional
positive regard, accurate empathy and genuineness. Unconditional positive regard, accurate
empathy and genuineness are considered to be qualities of the therapist enacted in relation to the
client in terms of humanistic therapy. These qualities are indispensable to the process of
humanistic remedy. In terms of these qualities, unconditional positive regard is a view of a
individual or client that is accepting and warm, no matter what that individual in remedy reveals in
terms of his or her emotional problems or experiences. This means that an individual in the
context of humanistic psychotherapy, or in therapy with a humanistic psychologist or therapist,
should expect the therapist to be accepting of whatever that person reveals to the therapist. In
this context, the therapist will be accepting and understanding regardless of what one tells the
therapist.
Accurate empathy is represented as understanding a client from that person's own perspective.
This means that the humanistic psychologist or therapist will be able to perceive you as you
perceive yourself, and that he will feel sympathy for you on the basis of the knowledge of your
reality. He will know you in terms of knowing your thoughts and feelings toward yourself, and he
will feel empathy and compassion for you based on that fact. As another quality enacted by the
humanistic therapist, genuineness is truthfulness in one's presentation toward the client; it is
integrity or a self-representation that is real. To be genuine with a client reflects qualities in a
therapist that entail more than simply being a therapist. It has to do with being an authentic
individual with one's client. Carl Rogers believed that, as a therapist, one could be authentic and
deliberate simultaneously. This means that the therapist can be a "real" person, even while he is
intentionally saying and doing what is required to help you.
The goal of therapy from the humanistic orientation is to allow the client to achieve congruence in
term of his real self and his ideal self. This means that what a man or woman is and what he
wants to be should become the same as remedy progresses. self-esteem that is achieved in
therapy will allow the client to elevate his sense of what he is, and self-esteem will also lessen his

11. need to be better than what he is. Essentially, as the real self is more accepted by the client, and
his raised self-esteem will allow him to be less than some kind of "ideal" self that he feels he is
compelled to be. It is the qualities of unconditional positive regard, accurate empathy and
genuineness in the humanistic therapist that allow the therapist to assist the client in cultivating
congruence between the real self and the ideal self from that client's perspective.
What the schizophrenic experiences can be confusing. It is clear that nearly all therapists,
psychiatrists and clinicians cannot understand the perspectives of the chronically mentally unwell.
Perhaps if they could understand what it is to feel oneself to be in a solitary prison of one's skin
and a visceral isolation within one's mind, with hallucinations clamoring, then the clinicians who
treat mental biological disorder would be able to better empathize with the mentally ill. The
problem with clinicians' empathy for the mentally unwell is that the views of mentally ill people are
remote and unthinkable to them. Perhaps the solitariness within the minds of schizophrenics is
the most painful aspect of being schizophrenics, even while auditory hallucinations can form what
seems to be a mental populace.
Based upon standards that make them feel inadequate, the mentally unwell respond to stigma by
internalizing it. If the mentally ill man or woman can achieve the goal of congruence between the
real self and the ideal self, their expectations regarding who "they should be" may be reconciled
with an acceptance of "who they are". As they lower their high standards regarding who they
should be, their acceptance of their real selves may follow naturally.
Carl Rogers said, "As I accept myself as I am, only then can I alter." In humanistic therapy, the
therapist can help even a schizophrenic accept who they are by reflecting acceptance of the
psychotic person. This may culminate in curativeness, although perhaps not a complete cure.
However, when the schizophrenic becomes more able to accept who they are, they can then
vary. Social acceptance is crucial for coping with schizophrenia, and social acceptance leads to
self-acceptance by the schizophrenic. The accepting therapist can be a key component in
reducing the negative consequences of stigma as it has affected the mental unwell person
afflicted client. This, then, relates to conditions of worth and the actualizing tendency. "Conditions
of worth" affect the mentally unwell more seriously than other people. Simple acceptance and
empathy by a clinician may be curative to some extent, even for the chronically mentally unwell. If
the schizophrenic individual is released from conditions of worth that are entailed by
stigmatization, then perhaps the actualizing tendency would assert itself in them in a positive way,
lacking distortion.
In the tradition of individual-centered remedy, the client is allowed to lead the conversation or the
dialogue of the remedy sessions. This is ideal for the psychotic person, provided he believes he is
being heard by his therapist. Clearly, the therapist's mind will have to stretch as they seek to
understand the client's subjective perspective. In terms of humanistic remedy, this theory would

12. look to apply to all folks, as it is based upon the psychology of all human beings, each uniquely
able to benefit from this approach by through the growth potential that is inherent in them. In
terms of the amelioration of psychosis by means of this remedy, Rogers offers hope.
Schizophrenia, from the Greek roots schizein ("to split") and phren- ("mind"), is a psychiatric
diagnosis that explains a mental illness characterized by impairments in the perception or
expression of reality, nearly all frequently manifesting as auditory hallucinations, paranoid or
bizarre delusions or disorganized speech and thinking in the context of significant social or
occupational dysfunction. start of symptoms usually occurs in young adulthood.
Schizophrenia is a chronic, disabling mental illness that may be induced by abnormal amounts of
certain chemicals in the brain. These chemicals are called neurotransmitters. Neurotransmitters
control our thought processes and emotions. Schizophrenia is a group of serious brain disorders
in which reality is interpreted abnormally. Schizophrenia results in hallucinations, delusions, and
disordered thinking and behavior. People with schizophrenia withdraw from the people and
activities in the world around them, retreating into an inner world marked by psychosis.
Schizophrenia is usually identified in people aged 17-35 years. The sickness seems earlier in
males (in the late teens or early twenties) than in women (who are affected in the twenties to early
thirties). Many of them are disabled. They may not be able to keep down jobs or even perform
tasks as simple as conversations. Some may be so incapacitated that they are unable to do
activities most people take for granted, for example showering or preparing a meal. Many are
homeless. Some recover enough to live a life relatively free from assistance.
Environmental factors are merely speculative and may include complications during pregnancy
and birth. For instance, some studies have shown that offspring of women whose sixth or seventh
month of pregnancy occurs during a flu epidemic are at augmented risk for developing
schizophrenia although other studies have refuted this. During the first trimester of pregnancy,
maternal starvation or viral infection may result in augmented risk for schizophrenia development
in the offspring. It has even been conjectured that babies born in the winter season are at
elevated danger for developing this mental ailment in their early adulthood.
Genetic factors appear to play a role, as people who have family members with schizophrenia
may be more possibly to get the illness themselves. Some researchers believe that events in a
individual's environment may trigger schizophrenia. just for instance, problems during intrauterine
development (infection) and birth may increase the risk for developing schizophrenia later in life.
People with schizophrenia describe odd or unrealistic thoughts. In many instances, their speech is
hard to follow due to disordered thinking. common forms of thought dysfunction include
circumstantiality (talking in circles around the issue), looseness of associations (moving from one
topic to the next without any logical connection between them), and tangentiality (moving from

13. one topic to another where the logical connection is visible, but not relevant to the issue at hand).
Schizophrenia is a severe, lifelong brain dysfunction. People who have it may hear voices, see
things that aren't there or believe that some others are reading or controlling their minds. In
males, conditions usually begin in the late teens and early 20s. They include hallucinations, or
seeing things, and delusions such as hearing voices.
Schizophrenia can be treated with medication in the sort of tablets or long-acting injections. Social
support for the individual and support for carers is significant. Counselling may be offered to the
individual with schizophrenia and their family. Brain scanning, especially MRI scanning, has
provided a far greater understanding of the condition and led to the development of antipsychotic
medication and therapies.
The exact cause of schizophrenia is unknown, but scientific evidence suggests that paranoid
schizophrenia is an organic or medical disorder, not just a psychological malady of the mind. The
National Institute of Mental Health reports that 1 percent of the total population is identified with
schizophrenia. Paranoid schizophrenia is one of the five kinds of schizophrenia; the signs that
distinguish paranoid schizophrenia from the other forms are paranoid delusions and beliefs of
persecution.
The National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) shows that schizophrenia is known to run in family
members with a history of psychiatric disorders. However, this is not always the case. According
to the Mayo Clinic and NIMH, evidence from years of research point to genes from first-degree
relatives leading to an increased danger of developing schizophrenia. NIMH also points out that
ongoing scientific tests are focusing on chemical malfunctions in the brain as keys to the genetic
link between relatives and persons with schizophrenia. According to the Mayo Clinic, the scientific
society continues to work toward proving that genetics is the primary cause of the dysfunction.
Changes in thinking and behaviour are the most obvious signs of schizophrenia, but people can
experience signs and symptoms in dissimilar ways. The symptoms of schizophrenia are usually
classified into one of two categories - positive or negative. Positive conditions : represent a vary in
behaviour or thoughts, such as hallucinations or delusions. Negative symptoms : represent a
withdrawal or lack of function that you would usually anticipate to see in a healthy individual; just
for instance, people with schizophrenia often appear emotionless, flat and apathetic
The condition may develop gradually. The first signs of schizophrenia, for example becoming
socially withdrawn and unresponsive or experiencing changes in sleeping patterns, can be hard to
identify. This is since the first signs and symptoms often develop during adolescence and
changes can be mistaken for an adolescent "phase".
People frequently have episodes of schizophrenia, during which their symptoms are particularly

14. severe, followed by periods where they experience few or no positive signs. This is known as
acute schizophrenia.
A hallucination is when a man or woman experiences a sensation but there is nothing or nobody
there to account for it. It can involve any of the senses, but the most common is hearing voices.
Hallucinations are very real to the individual experiencing them, even though people around them
cannot hear the voices or experience the sensations.
Study using brain-scanning equipment shows changes in the speech area in the brains of people
with schizophrenia when they hear voices. These studies show the experience of hearing voices
as a real one, as if the brain mistakes thoughts for real voices. Some people describe the voices
they hear as friendly and pleasant, but more frequently they are rude, very important, abusive or
annoying. The voices might describe activities taking place, discuss the hearer's thoughts and
behaviour, give instructions, or talk directly to the man or woman. Voices may come from different
places or one place in particular, for example the television.
A delusion is a belief held with complete conviction, even though it is based on a mistaken, odd or
unrealistic view. It may impact the way people behave. Delusions can begin unexpectedly, or may
develop over weeks or months. Some people develop a delusional idea to explain a hallucination
they are having. for example, if they have heard voices describing their actions, they may have a
delusion that someone is monitoring their actions. Someone experiencing a paranoid delusion
may believe they are being harassed or persecuted. They may believe they are being chased,
followed, watched, plotted against or poisoned, often by a family member or friend. Some people
who experience delusions find different meanings in everyday events or occurrences. They may
believe people on TV or in newspaper articles are communicating messages to them alone, or
that there are hidden messages in the colours of cars passing on the street.
People experiencing psychosis often have trouble keeping track of their thoughts and
conversations. Some people find it hard to concentrate and will drift from one idea to another.
They may have trouble reading newspaper articles or watching a TV programme. People
sometimes describe their thoughts as "misty" or "hazy" when this is happening to them. Thoughts
and speech may become jumbled or confused, making conversation difficult and hard for other
people to understand.
A person's behaviour may become more disorganised and unpredictable, and their appearance or
dress may look as if unusual to other people. People with schizophrenia may behave
inappropriately or become extremely agitated and shout or swear for no reason. Some people
describe their thoughts as being controlled by someone else, that their thoughts are not their own,
or that thoughts have been planted in their mind by someone else. Another recognised feeling is
that thoughts are disappearing, as though someone is removing them from their mind. Some
people feel their body is being taken over and someone else is directing their movements and

15. actions.
The negative conditions of schizophrenia can frequently appear several years before somebody
experiences their first acute schizophrenic episode. These initial negative signs and symptoms
are frequently referred to as the prodromal period of schizophrenia. conditions during the
prodromal period usually appear gradually and slowly get worse. They include becoming more
socially withdrawn and experiencing an increasing lack of care about your appearance and
personal hygiene. It can be difficult to tell whether the symptoms are part of the development of
schizophrenia or triggered by something else. Negative signs experienced by people living with
schizophrenia include: Losing interest and motivation in life and activities, including relationships
and sex. Lack of concentration, not wanting to leave the house, and changes in sleeping patterns.
Being less possibly to initiate conversations and feeling uncomfortable with people, or feeling
there is nothing to say The negative signs of schizophrenia can frequently result in relationship
problems with acquaintances and family since they can sometimes be mistaken for deliberate
laziness or rudeness.
Schizophrenia tends to run in families, but no one gene is thought to be responsible. It's more
likely that different combinations of genes make people more vulnerable to the condition.
However, having these genes doesn't necessarily mean you will develop schizophrenia. Evidence
the illness is partly inherited comes from scientific tests of twins. Identical twins share the same
genes. In identical twins, if one twin develops schizophrenia, the other twin has a one in two
chance of developing it too. This is true even if they are raised separately. In non-identical twins,
who have different genetic make-ups, when one twin builds up schizophrenia, the other only has
a one in seven chance of developing the condition. While this is higher than in the general
population (where the chance is about 1 in a 100), it suggests genes are not the only factor
influencing the development of schizophrenia.
studies of people with schizophrenia have shown there are subtle differences in the structure of
their brains. These changes aren't seen in everyone with schizophrenia and can occur in people
who don't have a mental biological disorder. But they suggest schizophrenia may partly be a
dysfunction of the brain.
Neurotransmitters. These are chemicals that carry messages between brain cells. There is a
connection between neurotransmitters and schizophrenia since drugs that alter the levels of
neurotransmitters in the brain are known to lessen some of the signs and symptoms of
schizophrenia. Study suggests schizophrenia may be induced by a alter in the level of two
neurotransmitters: dopamine and serotonin. Some scientific studies indicate an inequality
between the two may be the basis of the problem. Others have found a alter in the body's
sensitivity to the neurotransmitters is part of the cause of schizophrenia.

16. Research has shown that people who develop schizophrenia are more likely to have experienced
complications before and during their birth, such as a low birth weight, premature labour, or a lack
of oxygen (asphyxia) during birth. It may be that these things have a subtle effect on brain
development.
The main psychological triggers of schizophrenia are stressful life events, such as a
bereavement, losing your job or home, a divorce or the end of a relationship, or physical, sexual,
emotional or racial abuse. These kinds of experiences, though stressful, do not cause
schizophrenia, but can trigger its development in someone already vulnerable to it.
drugs do not directly cause schizophrenia, but scientific studies have shown drug misuse
increases the risk of developing schizophrenia or a similar ailment. Certain medicines, particularly
cannabis, cocaine, LSD or amphetamines, may trigger conditions of schizophrenia in people who
are susceptible. Using amphetamines or cocaine can lead to psychosis and can cause a relapse
in people recovering from an earlier episode. Three major scientific tests have shown teenagers
under 15 who use cannabis regularly, particularly "skunk" and other more potent forms of the
drug, are up to four times more possibly to develop schizophrenia by the age of 26.
As a consequence of their delusional thought patterns, people with schizophrenia may be
reluctant to visit their GP if they believe there is nothing wrong with them. It is likely someone who
has had acute schizophrenic episodes in the past will have been assigned a care co-ordinator. If
this is the case, contact the individual's care co-ordinator to express your concerns. If someone is
having an acute schizophrenic episode for the first time, it may be necessary for a friend, relative
or other loved one to persuade them to visit their GP. In the case of a rapidly worsening
schizophrenic episode, you may need to go to the accident and emergency (A&E) department,
where a duty psychiatrist will be obtainable. If a individual who is having an acute schizophrenic
episode refuses to seek help, their nearest relative can request that a mental health assessment
is carried out. The social services department of your local authority can advise how to do this. In
harsh cases of schizophrenia, people can be compulsorily detained in hospital for assessment
and handling under the Mental Health Act (2007).
If you or a friend or relative are clinically determined with schizophrenia, you may feel anxious
about what will happen. You may be worried about the stigma attached to the condition, or feel
frightened and withdrawn. It is significant to remember that a diagnosis can be a positive step
towards getting good, straightforward information about the ailment and the kinds of management
and services obtainable.
Schizophrenia is a severe brain ailment that affects more than 2 million males and women every
year in the United States. Schizophrenia can have disastrous effects, leaving the patient
withdrawn, paranoid, and delusional. Though there is presently no cure for schizophrenia, many
management options are obtainable. These remedies are highly effectual at reducing signs of the

17. ailment and preventing relapse. If you have schizophrenia, it is important to get recognized and
seek management from a psychiatrist as soon as possible.
Diagnosing schizophrenia can sometimes be difficult as certain conditions can be confused with
other medical conditions. symptoms of schizophrenia are quite similar to those brought about by
brain injury or surgery, drug abuse, chronic Vitamin B12 deficiency, or tuberculosis. There is no
physical test that can prove that you have schizophrenia. Instead, a diagnosis is made based
upon your signs, family history, and emotional history. In some cases, it may be difficult to
diagnose a first episode of schizophrenia. When a person has only a first episode, in the early
stages it may be called schizophreniform disorder. In this case, a doctor may have to track a case
over a period of time to establish a pattern of the signs of schizophrenia.
Though there is no remedy for schizophrenia, a wide variety of handling options are obtainable to
sufferers with the ailment. Schizophrenia handling is now quite effectual in most cases, and can
suppress signs and symptoms and prevent relapse in many schizophrenics. However, remedies
are ongoing and usually lifelong.
he most ordinary medical treatment for schizophrenia is the use of antipsychotic medication. 70%
of people using medications for schizophrenia improve, and medicine can also cut the relapse
rate for the illness by half, reducing it to 40%. Classic schizophrenia medication includes
Thorazine, Fluanxol, and Haloperidol. These prescription drugs are very effectual in treating the
positive conditions of schizophrenia. Newer "atypical" prescriptions include Risperdal, Clozaril,
and Aripiprazole. These prescriptions are recommended for first-line handling and are also good
at reducing positive signs and symptoms. Nearly all prescriptions are less effectual at treating
negative signs.
Antidepressants are recommended for those suffering from schizoaffective illness.
Antidepressants can successfully reduce the symptoms of depression in these sufferers.
Psychotherapy of some form is highly recommended for people suffering from schizophrenia. By
adding behavioral therapies for schizophrenia to a medical management regimen, the rate of
relapse is further reduced, to only 25%. a variety of types of psychotherapy are available to
schizophrenics. Cognitive remedy, psychoeducation, and family remedy can all help
schizophrenics deal with their signs and symptoms and learn to operate in society. Social skill
sets education is of great importance, in order to teach the patient specific methods to regulate
themselves in social situations.
Alternative interventions for schizophrenia are available, although they are never recommended
without first seeking medical handling. They are nearly all effective when paired with
antipsychotics and administered under doctor supervision. In particular, dietary supplements have
proven to have dramatic effects on the symptoms of schizophrenia. Glycine Supplements:
Glycine, an amino acid, is shown to help alleviate negative signs in schizophrenics by up to 24%.
Omega-3 Fatty Acids: Found in fish oils, Omega-3 fatty acids high in EPA can help to reduce

18. positive and negative conditions associated with schizophrenia. Antioxidants: The antioxidants
Vitamin E, Vitamin C, and Alpha Lipoic Acid show a 5 to 10% improvement in signs of the
disorder.
A person afflicted's support system may come from several sources, including the family, a
professional residential or day program provider, shelter operators, acquaintances or roommates,
professional case managers, churches and synagogues, and some others. because many
sufferers live with their family members, the following discussion frequently uses the term "family."
However, this should not be taken to imply that family members ought to be the primary support
system.
There are numerous situations in which sufferers with schizophrenia may need help from people
in their family or society. frequently, a person with schizophrenia will resist handling, believing that
delusions or hallucinations are real and that psychiatric help is not required. At times, family or
friends may need to take an active role in having them seen and evaluated by a professional. The
issue of civil rights enters into any attempts to provide handling. Laws protecting patients from
involuntary commitment have become very strict, and families and community organizations may
be frustrated in their efforts to see that a seriously mentally ill person gets needed help. These
laws vary from State to State; but generally, when people are dangerous to themselves or other
folks due to a mental dysfunction, the police can assist in getting them an emergency psychiatric
evaluation and, if necessary, hospitalization. In some places, staff from a local community mental
health center can evaluate an person's illness at home if he or she will not voluntarily go in for
treatment.
Sometimes only the family or others close to the individual with schizophrenia will be aware of
strange behavior or thoughts that the man or woman has expressed. Since patients may not
volunteer such information during an examination, family members or acquaintances should ask
to speak with the man or woman evaluating the sufferer so that all relevant information can be
taken into account.
Ensuring that a person with schizophrenia continues to get treatment after hospitalization is also
important. A patient may discontinue medications or stop going for follow-up treatment, frequently
leading to a return of psychotic signs. Encouraging the patient to continue management and
assisting him or her in the handling process can positively influence recovery. Without treatment,
some people with schizophrenia become so psychotic and disorganized that they cannot care for
their basic needs, for example food, clothing, and shelter. All too often, people with harsh mental
sicknesses for example schizophrenia end up on the streets or in jails, where they rarely receive
the kinds of management they need.
Those close to people with schizophrenia are often unsure of how to respond when patients make
statements that appear odd or are clearly false. For the individual with schizophrenia, the bizarre
beliefs or hallucinations look as if quite real - they are not just "imaginary fantasies." Instead of
"going along with" a individual's delusions, family members or friends can tell the person that they
do not see things the same way or do not agree with his or her conclusions, while acknowledging

19. that things may appear otherwise to the patient.
It may also be useful for those who know the individual with schizophrenia well to keep a record of
what types of signs have appeared, what drugs (including dosage) have been taken, and what
effects various treatments have had. By knowing what symptoms have been present before,
family members may know better what to look for in the future. Family members may even be
able to identify some "early warning signs" of potential relapses, such as increased withdrawal or
changes in sleep patterns, even better and earlier than the sufferers themselves. Thus, return of
psychosis may be detected early and management may prevent a full-blown relapse. Also, by
knowing which prescriptions have helped and which have caused troublesome side effects in the
past, the family can help those healing the patient to find the best treatment more quickly.
In addition to involvement in seeking help, family, acquaintances, and peer groups can provide
support and hearten the person with schizophrenia to regain his or her competencies. It is
essential that goals be feasible, since a person afflicted who feels pressured and/or repeatedly
criticized by some others will probably experience stress that may lead to a worsening of
conditions. Like anyone else, people with schizophrenia need to know when they are doing things
right. A positive approach may be helpful and perhaps more effectual in the long run than
criticism. This advice is applicable to everyone who communicates with the man or woman.
Suicide is a serious hazard in people who have schizophrenia. If an individual tries to carry out
suicide or threatens to do so, professional help should be sought immediately. People with
schizophrenia have a elevated rate of suicide than the general population. Approximately 10% of
people with schizophrenia (particularly younger adult men) carry out suicide. Unluckily, the
prediction of suicide in people with schizophrenia can be especially difficult.
News and entertainment media tend to link mental ailment and criminal violence; however,
scientific tests indicate that except for those persons with a record of criminal violence before
becoming unwell, and those with substance mistreatment or alcohol problems, people with
schizophrenia are not particularly prone to violence. Nearly all human beings with schizophrenia
are not dangerous; more usually, they are withdrawn and prefer to be left alone. Nearly all
dangerous crimes are not committed by persons with schizophrenia, and most persons with
schizophrenia do not carry out dangerous crimes. Substance abuse appreciably increases the
rate of violence in people with schizophrenia but also in people who do not have any mental
sickness. People with paranoid and psychotic signs, which can become worse if medicinal drugs
are stopped, may also be at higher risk for violent behavior. When physical violence does occur, it
is nearly all frequently targeted at family members and friends, and more frequently takes place at
home.
The nearly all ordinary sort of substance use condition in people with schizophrenia is nicotine
dependence due to smoking. While the prevalence of smoking in the U.S. population is about 25
to 30 percent, the prevalence among people with schizophrenia is approximately three times as
high. Study has shown that the relationship between smoking and schizophrenia is complex.

20. Although people with schizophrenia may smoke to self medicate their symptoms, smoking has
been found to interfere with the response to antipsychotic medicines. Several scientific studies
have found that schizophrenia sufferers who smoke need higher doses of antipsychotic medicine.
Quitting smoking may be particularly difficult for people with schizophrenia, since the symptoms of
nicotine withdrawal may cause a temporary worsening of schizophrenia symptoms. However,
smoking cessation strategies that include nicotine replacement methods may be effectual.
Doctors should carefully monitor medication dosage and response when patients with
schizophrenia either begin or stop smoking.
Substance abuse is a typical concern of the family and acquaintances of people with
schizophrenia. Since some people who abuse drugs may show symptoms similar to those of
schizophrenia, people with schizophrenia may be mistaken for people "high on drugs." While
nearly all researchers do not believe that substance abuse causes schizophrenia, people who
have schizophrenia often abuse alcohol and/or drugs, and may have particularly bad reactions to
certain medicines. Substance abuse can reduce the effectiveness of management for
schizophrenia. Stimulants (for example amphetamines or cocaine) may cause major problems for
patients with schizophrenia, as may PCP or marijuana. In fact, some people experience a
worsening of their schizophrenic symptoms when they are taking such medicines. Substance
abuse also reduces the likelihood that sufferers will follow the treatment plans recommended by
their doctors.
People with schizophrenia frequently show "blunted" or "flat" affect. This refers to a harsh
reduction in emotional expressiveness. A individual with schizophrenia may not show the
indications of normal emotion, perhaps may speak in a monotonous voice, have diminished facial
expressions, and appear extremely apathetic. The person may withdraw socially, avoiding contact
with other folks; and when forced to interact, he or she may have nothing to say, reflecting
"impoverished thought." Motivation can be greatly decreased, as can interest in or enjoyment of
life. In some harsh cases, a man or woman can spend entire days doing nothing at all, even
neglecting basic hygiene. These problems with emotional expression and motivation, which may
be extremely troubling to family members and friends, are signs and symptoms of schizophrenia -
not character flaws or personal weaknesses.
Schizophrenia often impacts a person's capability to "think straight." Thoughts may come and go
rapidly; the person may not be able to concentrate on one thought for very long and may be easily
distracted, not able to focus attention. People with schizophrenia may not be able to sort out what
is relevant and what exactly is not relevant to a situation. The individual may be unable to connect
thoughts into logical sequences, with thoughts becoming disorganized and fragmented. This lack
of logical continuity of thought, termed "thought dysfunction," can make conversation very difficult
and may contribute to social isolation. If people cannot make sense of what an individual is
saying, they are possibly to become uncomfortable and tend to leave that individual alone.
Delusions are false personal beliefs that are not subject to reason or contradictory evidence and
are not explained by a person's usual cultural concepts. Delusions may take on different themes.
as an example, sufferers suffering from paranoid-sort signs and symptoms - roughly one-third of

21. people with schizophrenia - frequently have delusions of persecution, or false and irrational
beliefs that they are being cheated, harassed, poisoned, or conspired against. These patients
may believe that they, or a member of the family or someone close to them, are the focus of this
persecution. In addition, delusions of grandeur, in which a individual may believe he or she is a
famous or important figure, may occur in schizophrenia. Sometimes the delusions experienced by
people with schizophrenia are quite bizarre; for instance, believing that a neighbor is controlling
their behavior with magnetic waves; that people on television are directing special messages to
them; or that their thoughts are being broadcast aloud to other folks.
Hallucinations are disturbances of perception that are typical in people suffering from
schizophrenia. Hallucinations are perceptions that occur without connection to an appropriate
source. Although hallucinations can occur in any sensory form - auditory (sound), visual (sight),
tactile (touch), gustatory (taste), and olfactory (smell) - hearing voices that other people do not
hear is the nearly all ordinary class of hallucination in schizophrenia. Voices may describe the
person afflicted's activities, carry on a conversation, warn of impending dangers, or even issue
orders to the person. Illusions, on the other hand, occur when a sensory stimulus is present but is
incorrectly interpreted by the person.
At times, normal persons may feel, think, or act in ways that resemble schizophrenia. Normal
people may sometimes be not able to "think straight." They may become extremely anxious, just
for instance, when speaking in front of groups and may feel confused, be not able to pull their
thoughts together, and forget what they had intended to say. This is not schizophrenia. At the
same time, people with schizophrenia do not always act abnormally. Indeed, some people with
the ailment can appear entirely normal and be perfectly responsible, even while they experience
hallucinations or delusions. An person's behavior may change over time, becoming bizarre if
medication is stopped and returning closer to normal when receiving appropriate treatment.
It is significant to rule out other health problems, as sometimes people suffer harsh mental signs
or even psychosis due to undetected underlying medical conditions. For this reason, a medical
history should be taken and a physical examination and laboratory tests should be done to rule
out other possible causes of the conditions before concluding that a person has schizophrenia. In
addition, since commonly abused drugs may cause conditions resembling schizophrenia, blood or
urine samples from the individual can be tested at hospitals or physicians' offices for the presence
of these drugs.
At times, it is difficult to tell one mental disorder from another. For instance, some people with
signs and symptoms of schizophrenia exhibit prolonged extremes of elated or depressed mood,
and it is important to determine whether such a sufferer has schizophrenia or actually has a
manic-depressive (or bipolar) disorder or major depressive illness. persons whose conditions
cannot be clearly categorized are sometimes recognized as having a "schizoaffective condition."
Children over the age of five can develop schizophrenia, but it is very rare before adolescence.
Although some people who later develop schizophrenia may have seemed dissimilar from other
children at an early age, the psychotic signs of schizophrenia - hallucinations and delusions - are

22. extremely uncommon before adolescence.
The outlook for people with schizophrenia has improved over the last 25 years. Although no
totally effectual remedy has yet been devised, it is important to remember that many people with
the ailment perk up enough to lead independent, satisfying lives. As we learn more about the
causes and therapies of schizophrenia, we should be able to help more sufferers achieve
successful outcomes. studies that have followed people with schizophrenia for long periods, from
the first episode to old age, reveal that a wide range of outcomes is possible. When large groups
of sufferers are studied, certain factors tend to be associated with a better outcome - let's say, a
pre-sickness history of normal social, school, and work adjustment. However, the current state of
knowledge, does not allow for a sufficiently accurate prediction of long-term outcome. Given the
complexity of schizophrenia, the major questions about this illness - its cause or causes,
prevention, and handling - must be addressed with research. The public should beware of those
offering "the treat" for (or "the cause" of) schizophrenia. Such claims can provoke unrealistic
expectations that, when unfulfilled, lead to further disappointment. Although progress has been
made toward better understanding and treatment of schizophrenia, continued investigation is
urgently needed. It is thought that a wide-ranging study effort, including basic scientific tests on
the brain, will continue to illuminate processes and principles significant for understanding the
causes of schizophrenia and for developing more effective interventions.
Schizophrenia is found all over the world. The severity of the signs and symptoms and long-
lasting, chronic pattern of schizophrenia frequently cause a high degree of disability. prescription
drugs and other treatments for schizophrenia, when used regularly and as prescribed, can help
reduce and control the stressful symptoms of the sickness. However, some people are not greatly
helped by available interventions or may prematurely discontinue management since of
obnoxious unintended effects or other reasons. Even when management is effectual, persisting
consequences of the ailment - lost opportunities, stigma, residual signs, and medication unwanted
side effects - may be very troubling. The first indications of schizophrenia often appear as
confusing, or even shocking, changes in behavior. Coping with the conditions of schizophrenia
can be especially difficult for family members who remember how involved or vivacious a person
was before they became unwell. The sudden onset of severe psychotic conditions is referred to
as an "acute" phase of schizophrenia. "Psychosis," a typical condition in schizophrenia, is a state
of mental impairment marked by hallucinations, which are disturbances of sensory perception,
and/or delusions, which are false yet strongly held personal beliefs that consequence from an
inability to separate real from unreal experiences. Less obvious conditions, such as social
isolation or withdrawal, or unusual speech, thinking, or behavior, may precede, be seen along
with, or follow the psychotic conditions. Some people have only one such psychotic episode;
other people have many episodes during a lifetime, but lead relatively normal lives during the
interim periods. However, the person with "chronic" schizophrenia, or a continuous or recurring
pattern of illness, frequently does not fully recover normal functioning and typically requires long-
term handling, generally including medicine, to control the signs and symptoms.

23. Natural remedies for schizophrenia vary but include such options as dietary changes and
nutritional supplements. Avoiding trigger foods allows the body to function more optimally while
supporting it with supplements realigns any nutritional deficiencies. Vitamin B3 and omega-3s are
particularly significant nutrients for healing the condition. Many of the foods human beings eat
negatively influence their health without their realization. Gluten is one such category of foods that
can be detrimental to one's health. Eliminating gluten and avoiding sugar eliminates stress on the
system and supports the mood, making it an effectual treatment option for schizophrenia and
other psychiatric conditions. All of the B vitamins are significant for helping the body produce
energy; however, vitamin B3 is particularly significant as it functions in producing a number of vital
hormones in the body. Vitamin B3 or niacin regulates stress-related hormones as well as the
levels in the adrenal glands, which facilitates better functioning of the brain. Reducing stress and
improving coping mechanisms are important factors in treating schizophrenia. Omega-3 fatty
acids are important for good health in a number of ways. In regards to schizophrenia, however,
these nutrients function to prevent depression and other emotional-related conditions. The
omega-3 fats lubricate the pathways to the nervous system, making for more effectual
communication to the brain and alleviating many of the signs of various psychiatric conditions. A
severe brain ailment, schizophrenia is characterized by an person's inability to interpret reality
normally. An individual affected by the condition often exhibits hallucinations, delusions and
distorted thinking. effective nutritional supports as well as other remedies successfully treat the
condition and facilitate more appropriate brain pathways.
Schizophrenia is not just one big condition. It consists of particularly five forms. Each has it's own
signs or absence of signs that set it apart from the other people. Hebephrenic schizophrenia
consists of huge psychological disorganization. Characteristics are improper moods, socially
withdrawn, and odd mannerisms. Hebephrenic schizophrenia reflects a loose structure of sign
patterns. Catatonic schizophrenia is another class relating to waxy flexibility. This type is relatively
rare due to the prescription drugs obtainable today. Folks may stand in positions for long periods
of time like wax statues. A more dominant set of symptoms is that of paranoid schizophrenia. This
is when persons experience persecution. Apart from their ideas of people plotting against them,
they react with a more normal behavior. Folks that have had at one time a schizophrenia episode
can be placed with residual schizophrenia. They may currently only show small indications like
social withdrawal, but at one point were much worse. Undifferentiated schizophrenia is when
individuals show more than one sign and can meet the criteria for more than one form.
Technically schizophrenia is broken down into these five forms, but conditions very from man or
woman to person and can change over time.
The actual reason behind schizophrenia still remains a mystery to scientist, but they are possible
theories. Schizophrenia has been attributed to high levels of dopamine activity in the brain that
are responsible for the emotion and cognitive functions. Lowering the amount of dopamine activity
reduces the signs of schizophrenia, and increasing dopamine activity brings on schizophrenia.
studies have shown that people with schizophrenia have more dopamine receptors than in other
people.

24. scientific tests have repeatedly found various structural abnormalities in people with
schizophrenia. MRI scan examinations have generally revealed 3 types of abnormalities. An
associated structural problem is cortical atrophy, a deterioration of the nerve cells in the cortex.
This class of damage in the brain occurs 20% to 35% in people with schizophrenia. Ventricles
tend to be mildly to moderately enlarged by 20% to 50% for persons with schizophrenia. Another
structural problem is reversed cerebral asymmetry that is associated with schizophrenia.
Reversed cerebral asymmetry causes the right side of the brain to tend to be larger than the left
side. Though no single gene is known to cause schizophrenia, genetic composition influences a
person's disposition toward schizophrenia tendencies. Schizophrenia is more prevalent in the
relatives of persons with schizophrenia. According to the British Columbia Schizophrenia Society,
if you have a parent or sibling with schizophrenia, your risk factor is increased to 10%. Both
parents with schizophrenia consequence in a 40% chance along with a 40% chance when having
an identical twin with schizophrenia. Genetics can not be the entire cause behind schizophrenia
since 80% to 90% of the persons who have schizophrenia do not have parents with
schizophrenia. Genetic factors are thought to establish biological predisposition for schizophrenia
but the environmental stress factors must bring out the schizophrenia within the individual. This is
known as the diathesis-stress hypothesis. A disturbed relationship within the home can cause
stress accounting for an onset of schizophrenia. Long term follow-up of children whose parents
suffered from schizophrenia showed children who suffered from personal stresses were more
likely to develop the dysfunction. While schizophrenia may be brought about from structural
abnormalities, genetics, to environmental factors no exact cause for schizophrenia exists today.
There is as yet no permanent remedy for schizophrenia. A major management for schizophrenia
is antipsychotics. Antipsychotics work to subdue anxiety and hyperactivity, counteract
hallucinations, and reduce aggression. The medicines are no cure but they do lessen signs and
symptoms. 80% of patients who discontinue their antipsychotic medication suffer relapses of the
illness within two years. Another dramatic sort of management tried on the condition is
electroconvulsive remedy. This management can produce unwanted unwanted side effects like
memory loss. A stopped treatment is surgery on the prefrontal lobe of the cerebrum called a
lobotomy. A lobotomy can cause extreme personality dysfunction. therapy and rehabilitation are
used to treat the loss of social development that can occur. remedy can help the individual build a
normal life and interact with other folks. Although no treatment is guaranteed to work, they can
help sufferers grab a better sense of reality. It is estimated that as many as 25% of sufferers now
recover almost fully, and about 50% show a least partial recovery. The remaining 25% need long-
term help.
Schizophrenia is a scary psychological disorder. With a frequency rate of 1 man or woman in 100,
it is relatively common. The causes behind schizophrenia are still a mystery whether they are
genetic or environmental. With management sufferers have the chance to live a more normal life
but have no promise to recuperation. As a community everyone has an obligation to accept
sufferers of such a horrendous ailment. By educating yourself about schizophrenia, you can help
folks within your influence overcome signs and symptoms and establish a more peaceful and

25. organized lifestyle.
A schizophrenia drug under development could benefit sufferers who are at risk of developing
conditions including diabetes and cardiovascular disease, as well as weight gain, which are
associated with some second-generation antipsychotics. Additional analyses on Phase II data on
ITI-007, a serotonin 5-HT2A receptor antagonist from Intra-Cellular Therapies, Inc., were
presented at the recent American Psychiatric Association Annual Meeting in Toronto. The Phase
II reasearch, ITI-007-005, was a double-blind, placebo- and active-controlled trial enrolling 335
sufferers with an episode of schizophrenia.
The FDA has permitted under Priority Review Janssen Pharmaceuticals' New Drug Application
(NDA) for the three-month long-acting atypical antipsychotic Invega Trinza. Invega Trinza, a
three-month injection, is an atypical antipsychotic indicated to treat schizophrenia. Before starting
Invega Trinza, sufferers must be adequately treated with Invega Sustenna (one-month
paliperidone palmitate) for at least four months. Priority Review is a designation for drugs that, if
authorized, would offer significant improvement in the handling of serious conditions.
[Famous People With Schizophrenia] Confirmed Cases: Bettie Page - Playboy magazine Miss
January 1955 pin-up model. John Nash - Nobel Prize winning mathematician, portrayed by actor
Russell Crowe in the movie, A Beautiful Mind. The movie details Nash's 30 year struggle with this,
frequently debilitating, mental illness and its eventual, victorious culmination, when he won the
Nobel Prize for economics in 1994. Eduard Einstein - Son of Albert Einstein. The world knows
Eduard's famous father best for conceptualizing the Theory of Relativity (E=MC2), developing the
atomic bomb, and pioneering numerous other scientific breakthroughs. Records note Eduard's
high intelligence and natural musical talent as well as his youthful dream of becoming a doctor of
psychiatry. Schizophrenia struck Eduard during his 20th year in 1930. He received psychiatric
care at an asylum in Zurich, Switzerland. Tom Harrell - Superstar jazz trumpet musician and
composer, Harrell continues to produce and compose music, releasing his 24th album earlier in
2011. He speaks openly about his struggles with the ailment in hopes of helping other folks cope
with their own challenges. He claims music and prescription drugs with helping him persevere
well into his 60s, while remaining at the top of his craft. Elyn Saks - A law professor, specializing
in mental health law, Saks authored her memoirs, The Center Cannot keep: My Journey Through
Madness, where she openly talks of her decades-long battle with schizophrenia. Honored as a
legal scholar and peerless authority on mental health law, Saks accepted a $500,000 genius
grant from the MacArthur Foundation in 2009. Lionel Aldridge - Aldridge played as a defensive
end for the Green Bay Packers and coach Vince Lombardi in the 1960s. During this time, Aldridge
played in two Super Bowls, but schizophrenia knows all men as equals -- regardless of talent,
fame and fortune. Aldridge was struck with the biological disorder soon after his football career
ended and spent two and a half years alone and homeless - a celebrity athlete on the streets.
Once he found help for his struggles with the ailment, he dedicated his life to delivering
inspirational speeches about his battle with paranoid schizophrenia and his ultimate victory over
its ravages. He died in 1998. Many more well-known musicians, actors, authors, and artists have
openly spoken out about their mental disorder in efforts to reduce stigma.

26. [Famous People With Schizophrenia] Strongly Suspected: Mary Todd Lincoln - wife of President
Abraham Lincoln has received an historical diagnosis of schizophrenia from experts who studied
her and the president's writings about her behaviors and struggles. Michaelangelo - Anthony
Storr, author of The Dynamics of Creation, writes about reasons to suspect that this, one of
history's greatest geniuses of creative talent, legendary artist suffered from schizophrenia. Vivien
Leigh - actress who played the impetuous Scarlett O'Hara in the film, Gone With the Wind,
suffered from a mental ailment resembling schizophrenia, according to biographer Ann Edwards.
Despite a massive effort to diminish the stigma associated with mental ailment in America, strong
negative attitudes persist in U.S. culture about schizophrenia and other debilitating mental
diseases. Perhaps sharing the stories of celebrities and other famous people with schizophrenia
can help alter these damaging attitudes, so some others do not have to suffer in silence.
Extended periods of recurring psychosis in schizophrenia sufferers contribute to progressive loss
of brain tissue, a new imaging study shows. Furthermore, the same study shows that
antipsychotic handling is also linked to brain loss in a dose-dependent manner. These findings
confirm the importance of implementing "proactive measures that prevent relapse and improve
adherence to handling" and that clinicians should strive to use the "lowest possible [antipsychotic]
dosage to control signs and symptoms," investigators, led by Nancy C. Andreasen, MD, PhD, with
the Psychiatric Neuroimaging Consortium, University of Iowa Carver College of Medicine in Iowa
City, write. The study is posted in the June issue of the American Journal of Psychiatry (Am J
Psychiatry. 2013;170:571-573,609-615). The findings stem from clinical and imaging data on 202
patients in the Iowa Longitudinal reasearch of first-episode schizophrenia. The sufferers
underwent structural magnetic resonance imaging at regular intervals for an average of 7 years.
Of the 202 patients, 157 experienced at least 1 relapse, 29 had no relapse, and 16 remained at a
continually severe sickness level and did not perk up enough that they could then relapse. Among
patients who relapsed, the average number of relapses was 1.64, with a range of 1 to 4; the
signify duration of relapse was 1.34 years, and the maximum was 7.09 years. The researchers
found that the duration of relapse was closely related to loss of brain tissue over time in multiple
brain regions, including generalized tissue loss (total cerebral volume), as well as loss in
subregions, particularly the frontal lobes. On the other hand, simply counting the number of
relapses had no predictive value. Use of a regression analysis allowed the research workers to
simultaneously and independently evaluate the results of relapse duration and antipsychotic
handling intensity on brain tissue measures. They found that both contribute to brain tissue loss
but that the management effects are more diffusely distributed, whereas the relapse effects are
most strongly associated with frontal lobe tissue changes. "These findings suggest that relapse
prevention after initial onset may convey a significant clinical benefit. This in turn suggests the
importance of doing as much as possible to ensure handling adherence as a way of preventing
relapse, beginning aggressively at the time of illness onset," Dr. Andreasen told Medscape
Medical News. Adherence, Dr. Andreasen added, can be "maximized in many methods:
maintaining good rapport and frequent supportive contact, choice of prescriptions that have the
lowest aversive adverse effects, for example akathisia and extrapyramidal adverse effects, and
use of long-acting injectable prescriptions."

27. Psychosocial interventions: Education: Education for the individual and the family about
schizophrenia is essential. Providing education and information enables the family as well as the
individual with schizophrenia to take an active role in the recovery and rehabilitation process, and
to do so from an empowered position. Covering a all-natural approach to healing Schizophrenia.
Includes psychotherapies, social skillsets and vocational education, self-help groups and family
interventions. Social and living skillsets training. Social and living skill sets training is an effective
means of enabling individuals with schizophrenia to re-learn a variety of skill sets needed for living
independently. Social and living skills education can be used with persons and with groups and
provides chances for people to acquire skill sets they have not been able to develop due to
particular life circumstances, re-learn skills which were lost or reduced due to the crippling effects
of schizophrenia or particular life circumstances and enhance existing skill sets to enable more
effective functioning. Vocational education and rehabilitation: Work has the potential to be a
'normalising' experience and to provide benefits such as enhanced personal satisfaction,
increased self-confidence, additional earnings, economic independence, social interaction and
recreational and companionship chances. Nearly all importantly, it is frequently identified as a
goal of people with schizophrenia. Any person with schizophrenia who expresses an interest in
attaining employment, or who may help from work opportunity, should receive occupational
services. talking therapies: There are several different 'talking therapies' to choose from. They
range in their approaches, from aiming to ease distress and perk up coping skillsets though to
seeking to help people appreciate their own thoughts, feelings and patterns of behaviour. Some of
these talking therapies are listed below. Counselling: Counsellors pay attention without judgement
and help individuals to explore issues which are essential in the recuperation process.
Counsellors do not give recommendation but should act as a guide for individuals in working
things out for themselves.
The holistic approach as it is applied to the treatment of schizophrenia, means "assessing how
schizophrenia is affecting all aspects of an person's being. The emotional, psychological, social
and physical aspects should all be considered - the focus is not exclusively on the illness. This
approach recognises that a individual who has schizophrenia may be particularly susceptible to a
range of health problems as a result of their biological disorder and while healing these may not
influence the conditions of schizophrenia, it will perk up overall quality of life"1. Preventative
measures (taking sensible precautions), are very much a part of this approach and include
keeping an eye out for any general health problems, monitoring dietary habits, caffeine and
nicotine intake, sleep patterns, exercise and leisure activities. Although medication is almost
always necessary in the handling of schizophrenia, it is not usually enough by itself. As mentioned
earlier, it is essential to search out additional resources, for example 'chatting therapies', social
and employment rehabilitation services, and living arrangements that may be helpful at various
stages of recuperation. It is also extremely important for folks, family members and health
providers to make decisions together about handling plans and goals to work toward. Below are
some forms of activities that may be useful in the recovery process.
The advent of psychopharmacology. The discovery of the antipsychotic chlorpromazine by the
French team of scientists Pierre Deniker, Henri Leborit, and Jean Delay in the early 1950s
ushered in the psychopharmacologic era. Not only were these prescriptions efficacious in

28. alleviating some of the nearly all disturbing positive symptoms of the psychotic sufferer, they
helped to initiate the understanding of the neurobiological processes underlying these disorders.
Other, so-called "typical" agents such as thioridazine, trifuloperazine, and haloperidol had
different side-effect profiles but similar mechanisms of action. They also had problems with
potentially serious unintended effects of tardive dyskinesia. management was substantially
advanced through the introduction of the "atypical" neuroleptic clozapine. This agent helped to
alleviate negative signs for example social withdrawal and apathy as well as cognitive deficits.
The unintended effects, including potentially life terrifying agranulocytosis, limited the utility of the
drug. Newer atypical agents include risperidal, olanzapine, quetiapine, and ziprasidone. Not only
do these prescription drugs have an improved side-effect profile, but new clinical uses are being
discovered that extend their utility. just for instance, olanzapine was permitted as a mood
stabilizing medicine. Modern psychological explanations of schizophrenia have at times ascribed
blame for the start or perpetuation of the illness to either victim or caregiver. Some
psychodynamic theories, let's say, posited that the person's early upbringing was a major force in
the development of psychotic disorders. A school of family remedy fostered the idea of a
"schizophrenogenic" mother as the primary disorganizing force leading to a psychotic break. Our
more recent understanding of the biological basis of behavior has helped to place the
schizophrenic condition in a less stigmatized and more comprehensive and realistic light.
Schizophrenia in part seems to be a disease related to impaired neural connectivity from
glutaminergic disinhibition. Frontal lobe connectivity is impaired and schizophrenia is evidenced
by decreased white and gray cortical matter, decreased neuronal viability, prefrontal cortex white
matter tract disturbances, decreased neuronal size, decreased prefrontal cortex synapses, and,
perhaps most appreciably, decreased prefrontal cortex dendritic spine density. These dendritic
spines normally integrate neuronal inputs, particularly in the excitatory range. since there is a
reduced density in the cortex of schizophrenic sufferers, there also is a decrease in glutamate
receptors on dendritic spines. One of the functions of the NMDA receptor located on dendritic
spines is in the area of neuroplasticity. Abnormalities in this receptor also appear to cause chaotic
network activity. EEG findings in schizophrenic sufferers have shown abnormal coherence and
decreased synchrony. AMPA receptors appear to modulate fast receptor activation, and a deficit
in these receptors may cause glutamate hypoactivity. The relationship of NMDA functioning with
AMPA functioning is one of the hypotheses connecting these receptors with the pathophysiology
of schizophrenia. One theory is that there is a resting hypofrontality in schizophrenic sufferers
showing a twofold decrease in dendritic projections and a reduce in AMPA receptors. However,
during task-related cortical activation, there seems to be diminished NMDA functioning compared
with AMPA functioning. In schizophrenia, there also appears to be a decrease in GABA activity
that could compensate for the decrease in AMPA activity. Too much of a reduce in GABA activity
could lead to amplification of noise in networks where there is a reduce in NMDA receptor
functioning. Ketamine is an NMDA receptor antagonist that causes euphoria, psychosis, and
other mood effects. As a model for schizophrenia, ketamine will induce positive signs and
symptoms, negative conditions, and cognitive impairment similar to those experienced by
schizophrenic sufferers. This is unlike amphetamines, which do not appear to induce negative
conditions. Thus, schizophrenia may resemble an NMDA deficit. In healthy subjects who are
administered ketamine, there seems to be an enhancement of AMPA functioning, which leads to

29. inactivation during the resting state and activation during the task-related state. In schizophrenic
sufferers, there may be a decrease in NMDA receptors leading to a deficiency of GABA that, in
turn, causes cortical activation. The therapeutic implications of this model lead to the possibility of
promoting NMDA functioning in schizophrenic sufferers. Glycine may promote NMDA functioning
while agents for example lamotrigine, nimodipine, and lorazepam may reduce cortical conductivity
and thus decrease a hyperglutaminergic state. Glycine seems to enhance the effect of
antipsychotics except for clozapine, while lamotrigine seems to improve the efficacy of clozapine.
This may be since clozapine may itself improve glutamine activity, and lamotrigine would help
decrease this activity.
Neurotransmitters implicated in the pathogenesis of schizophrenia have included dopamine,
serotonin, glutamine, and acetylcholine. Cognitive disability in schizophrenia may at least partly
be due to reduced acetylcholine activity in the cortex. Muscarinic receptors seem to modify both
dopamine and glutamine receptors, with an augment in muscarinic activity imposing a reduce in
dopamine activity. Also, in postmortem scientific tests, muscarinic receptors were decreased in
patients with schizophrenia by 28%. Donepezil is an acetylcholinesterase inhibitor that appears to
improve cognitive functioning in sufferers with dementia. Recently, there have been preliminary
indications that its use may be effectual in sufferers with schizophrenia. In a study of sufferers
with schizophrenia and comorbid dementia, patients appeared to show an enhancement in their
Mini Mental State Examination (MMSE) of between 6 and 9 points when donepezil was added to
their management regimen. In a small follow-up study of 6 sufferers with schizophrenia and
comorbid dementia, there also was an improvement in MMSE scores when 5 mg of donepezil
was added. Donepezil did not appear to worsen extrapyramidal side effects, nor did it appear to
influence positive and negative signs and symptoms. Another study showed a normalization of left
frontal and cingulated activity as measured by a function MRI in 6 stable subjects on
antipsychotics after being randomized to receive donepezil for a 12-week period. In a recent
reasearch examining nondemented schizophrenia patients resistant to clozapine monotherapy, 8
patients were evaluated in an 18-week, double-blind, crossover study with donepezil added onto
clozapine. These patients were considered treatment-resistant as they continue to have active
psychotic signs despite at least 6 months of clozapine treatment at a imply dosage of 466 mg/day.
There did not appear to be a significant difference in PANSS scores in the 6 patients who
completed the reasearch. However, closer examination of the data indicated that during the times
when they were on donepezil, 3 of the patients appeared to improve in their symptomatology.
This leads to the hope that there may be a place for acetylcholinesterase inhibitors as an adjunct
in the treatment of schizophrenia. Further scientific studies are needed to help elucidate this
issue.
The dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia indicates that in this condition there is both a
hyperdopaminergic state in the cortical mesolimbic tract (causing positive signs and symptoms)
and a hypodopaminergic state in the mesocortical tract (causing negative signs). Classic
antipsychotic therapies have focused on reducing dopamine activity in the cortex, which
potentially increases negative symptoms. The impact of this activity on the other dopamine tracts
-- the nigrostriatal and tuberoinfundibular tracts -- results in extrapyramidal unwanted side effects
and hyperprolactinemia, correspondingly, both undesired effects. Partial agonism is not a new