68 DOMESTICVIOLENCE EXCHANGESEPTEMBEROCTOBER20.docx

68 DOMESTIC VIOLENCE
EXCHANGE
SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 2010
In 1980, Karen Stephens became director
of Illinois State University Child Care Center
and instructor in child development for ISU
Family and Consumer Sciences. She is
author of the electronic parent newsletter,
“Parenting Exchange” located at
www.ChildCareExchange.com.
Fostering resilience in children
exposed to domestic violence
Practical strategies EC staff can put into action
by Karen Stephens
Whether staff realizes it or not, early
childhood programs are not just fun and
engaging places for children to play and
learn. For some children, our programs
are bonafide daytime havens from
turmoil. I’m speaking specifically about
those children who find themselves in
the cross-fire of violence between the
people they love most in the world —
their own family members. The vio-
lence might be verbal intimidation and
humiliation, or a combination of verbal
and physical attack. Either way, it’s terri-
fying for the children witnessing assault

behind closed doors. Whether violent
episodes in the home are a one-time
occurrence — or a long time, repeated
pattern of family dysfunction — the
fallout of violence leaves a mark on
children’s emotional spirit and overall
development, including typical brain
development.
Children enmeshed in violence don’t
experience a relaxed, predictable, or
trusting home life. In fact, children
exposed to home violence often experi-
ence symptoms of post-traumatic stress
disorder (PTSD) just as adults do after
enduring violence. Domestic violence
robs children of their childhood. And
while early childhood staff can’t erase
the effects of violence on children’s
individual make-up, they can become
a positive mediating factor. By nurtur-
ing children’s ability to rebound from
challenges, early childhood profession-
als can help children become resilient,
despite their early experiences with
trauma.
To become an effective ‘resilience factor’
for children, we must be aware of the
effects of violence on children. Early
childhood staff — especially classroom
teachers and caregivers — need to be
alert to symptoms that suggest children
may feel under siege in their own home.
With that knowledge, we can make

specific adjustments in our classrooms
and programs to increase children’s re-
silience. If we do so with intentional and
consistent effort, we can help trauma-
tized children feel more trusting, safe,
secure, and hopeful about life, despite
their personal experience with family
violence. We can be an intervention to
show children an alternative view of
human interaction that is characterized
by dignified interactions and respectful
conflict resolution. It’s another side of
life they desperately need to believe in.
Children’s behavioral clues
indicating trauma due to
domestic violence
Following are some symptoms early
childhood staff might observe. A cluster
of behaviors should be considered a ‘red
flag’ needing immediate and thoughtful
attention.
Any behavior clues should be docu-
mented over time to reveal a pattern. Re-
viewing the pattern can help staff create
a coordinated strategy to help the child
and his or her family. Calm, responsive
efforts to support all involved can pro-
mote greater emotional health through
open communication and construc-
tive problem solving. Throughout that
responsive process, children’s resilience
is fostered.

Children exposed to family violence
may:
n Be easily distracted, unable to concen-
trate, and daydream often
n Often retreat or disengage from the
group into silent occupation, such as
hiding in a cozy space playing alone
n Become aloof, emotionally numbed
or ‘zoned out’ — what is sometimes
called dissociation — in order to keep
the pain of hurtful memories at bay
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n React disproportionately frightened
after making even a minor mistake
or a ‘mess’
n Excessively cling to one adult or
revert to behavior associated with
earlier stages of development (i.e.,
bedwetting, whining, sucking
thumb)
n Repeatedly act out traumatic inci-
dents during dramatic play, such
as when acting out family life or
playing with dolls or puppets

n Appear jumpy with a quick and
frequent ‘startle-reflex’ in response
to loud, unexpected sounds — even
laughter
n Appear hypervigilant in monitor-
ing classroom atmosphere and
especially harmony between adults
n Avoid eye contact with adults or
use a ‘white lie’ when answering
an adult’s direct question about the
child’s or a parent’s home behavior
n Experience frequent sleep distur-
bances, including nightmares
n Have unwanted, intrusive memory
flashbacks of traumatic events
when trying to go to sleep at nap-
or bedtime
n Become agitated when it’s time to
go home, especially before week-
ends
n Act especially relieved to arrive at
child care after weekends
n Consistently avoid a specific
gender or pretend one parent isn’t
really part of the family (usually
omitting the one the child views as
the instigator of family violence)

n Show changes in eating behavior
(increase or decrease)
n Acquire bumps, cuts , bruises or
broken bones (from getting in the
way of fighting adults — some-
times called ‘cross-fire’ by victims)
n Have frequent headaches and/or
stomachaches
n Be aggressive, physically as well as
using insulting or taunting behav-
ior (verbal as well as non-verbal)
toward peers and even toward
embroiled parents.
say, “I’m wondering what you could
tell me about . . . ”.
n Be prepared for some children to avoid
talking. For children reluctant to talk,
provide other safe ways to commu-
nicate, such as through puppetry,
storytelling, story writing, or making
up stories in the dramatic play or
block center.
n Help children identify emotions and
model a rich vocabulary about feelings.
This helps children learn how to ex-
press and act on powerful emotions.
Pair words with facial expressions;
it helps children learn that everyone
has unique feelings. With preschool-
ers, gradually introduce new words

to ‘name’ feelings associated with
anger, such as: frightened, anxious,
mad, scared, angry, worried, nervous,
afraid, frustrated, confused, ignored,
embarrassed, or mad.
n Help children learn to interpret
others’ emotions. Gently remind them
that everyone has feelings and rights.
Being sensitive to others’ emotions
and then taking into account different
perspectives is very hard for young
children; it’s a high-level thinking
skill. Be patient; it’s an emerging skill
that takes time to develop. Encourage
toddlers to empathize by ‘translat-
ing’ others’ body language and angry
feelings: “That boy is mad, he’s crying
because someone grabbed his toy
from him. He wants it back.”
n Have both male and female teachers in the
classroom. It’s important for children
to witness both genders caring for
children and working peacefully and
cooperatively with each other. If you
don’t have both genders as paid staff,
work to seek qualified volunteers to
ensure balanced representation.
n Declare your program premises a safe
zone for all. If disagreements between
parents or other family members
(such as aunt, uncles, or grand-
parents) threaten to erupt, invite them
into a private office in the center. This

will maintain classroom harmony and
remind adults of children’s needs for
DOMESTIC VIOLENCE 69
EXCHANGE
Fostering children’s resilience:
Strategies to consider
Children’s resilience depends on a num-
ber of factors. For instance, children born
with a more flexible, social, and ‘easy’
temperament and an optimistic attitude
tend to bounce back from adversity more
effectively. Children who develop a sense
of faith and trust that life will turn out for
the best are also more resilient.
Early childhood program staff don’t
have control over those resilience factors,
but there are many other ways teachers
can influence a child’s ability to flourish
despite vulnerability. Here are some strat-
egies early childhood staff can apply to
support all children’s resilience. The strat-
egies are especially helpful to children
traumatized by domestic violence.
n Maintain a strong one-on-one relation-
ship with a child over time. Take special
note of a child’s well-being so they feel
accepted. Let children know you are a
safe, reliable person to turn to for help.
Research shows that one consistent,
supportive, attentive, and responsive

person in a child’s life can go a long
way toward building resilience. That
‘one person’ is most often a grand-
parent, teacher, or favorite neighbor.
School-age children often mention
coaches as making a big contribution to
their resilience.
n Don’t push children to discuss their experi-
ences. It’s important to be available so
children have the opportunity to talk
about anxiety or fears, but undue
pressure leads to withdrawal. Patiently
observe as the child warms up to con-
fide in you.
n Listen to a child’s feelings as well as facts
he may share. Empathize with a child’s
point of view with a rich vocabulary
about feelings. Listen leisurely without
rushing a child. If you ask questions,
use gentle, open-ended ones. For
instance, if you wish to follow up on a
child’s comment or behavior, you could
peting, acoustic tiles, or cloth covered
dividers help reduce noise. Slamming
doors and similar sounds should also
be avoided.
n Provide an uncluttered, organized class-
room that allows children to easily see toys
and how they may be used. Traumatized
children often have trouble concentrat-

ing — perhaps because they are often
vigilantly ‘on the lookout’ for violence
to erupt at any moment. An unclut-
tered living and learning space helps
them focus and maintain calm.
n Avoid overcrowding of children and mate-
rials. Create areas where children can
easily share and cooperate so children
see group interaction is possible with-
out aggression. To avoid overwhelm-
ing children with too much stimuli,
have fewer resources in the room at
one time through periodic rotation.
n Include small cozy spaces for retreat in the
classroom. These spaces help promote
security and calm. Create nooks that
fit no more than two children at a time.
A discarded appliance box — with
windows cut out and pillows tossed
in for comfort — works. An indoor
or outdoor picnic table with a sheet
placed over it to create a tent provides
children a sense of sanctuary and
protection. Even a small two-person
camping tent in the classroom gives
children a little shelter to snuggle up
with a puppet or book or crayons
and paper. Sturdy lofts also provide
personal play space on top as well as
under the loft.
n Include ‘soft’ elements in the classroom to
add gentleness. Add relaxing classroom
items such as loveseats with wash-

able slip covers, floor pillows, quilts
on walls, gliders, or rocking chairs for
relaxing and calming. Stuffed animals
and diverse dolls for children to hug
are important, too.
n Offer outdoor cozy spaces, too. A natural
‘green’ retreat is soothing. In your out-
door space, create a bower of non-toxic
bushes. Tree houses or small log cabins
or other types of play houses are good,
too. A weeping willow tree creates a
EXCHANGE
pet in your classroom. Animals give
children a sense of unconditional love
and an ear that listens patiently.
n Provide plenty of time for self-initiated
‘free play,’ especially pretend play.
Children use play as a way to make
sense of the world around them. They
also use it as a way to relax and gain
control over their thinking.
n Give children a sense of control over their
activities. At home, life can spin out of
control at a moment’s notice, leaving
these children with a depressing sense
of powerlessness. You can counter
those feelings by giving children
choices.

n Welcome children to contribute to class-
room well-being. For instance, children
can help prepare snacks, set tables,
water plants, and care for pets. That
sense of competent independence
allows them to realize they make a
positive difference in the classroom,
and that builds resilience.
n Affirm that everyone has equal rights to
emotional and physical safety in the class-
room. Let children see social justice
put into action so they can observe
and consider this along with the style
of interaction they may be seeing in
the home. Implement non-biased
practices to counter ‘isms’ of all kinds.
n Maintain a stable staff and a predictable
schedule and classroom routine. Keep to
a ‘no surprises’ schedule. Help anx-
ious children anticipate what comes
next. Give them warnings about
changes, such as a substitute teacher
or a classroom visitor. Give them
chances to role play or go through a
‘rehearsal’ to prepare them for a field
trip or upcoming celebration. Your
goal is to counteract a sense of confu-
sion, withdrawal, and helplessness
that often develops in children who
regularly witness violence.
n Introduce sound reduction elements in
the classroom. Stressed children can be
overwhelmed by excessive and un-

expected noises. They have a strong
‘startle reflex’ that that has a quicker
trigger than the typical child’s. Car-
a calm and respectful atmosphere.
n Be a good example. Illustrate the behavior
you expect. If you don’t want kids yell-
ing, name-calling, or belittling others,
change your own ways first.
n Identify children’s unique talents. Focus-
ing on a specific talent is one way a
child creates her own identity. It also
provides solace and mental relief from
emotional strain. Provide consistent
positive and specific feedback to nur-
ture them. For instance, if a child has a
talent for music, integrate musical and
movement activities into your curricu-
lum. In all activities, encourage creativ-
ity, teamwork, and respectful problem
solving.
n Role model a positive attitude to inspire
children. Exemplify optimism. Invite
children to join you in taking joy in
the small wonders of life that are free
and available to all — such as a lovely
sunny day, a songbird calling to its
mate, or the scent of a lilac in bloom.
n Avoid being overly self-critical by taking
mistakes in stride. This will show
children they don’t have to be too hard
on themselves every time they make

a mistake. (Children often incorrectly
assume their mistakes cause family
violence.)
n Connect children to sensory relaxation
activities to manage stress constructively.
From watching clouds float by to play-
ing with play dough, there are many
ways children can find respite from
the stress of family violence. Provide
stress-relieving activities, including
outdoor and nature play, sensory art
materials, sand and water play, and
gardening, singing and dancing to
music.
n Connect children to safe nature whenever
possible. Research shows nature can
be soothing for children. The regular
cycle of seasons and all the sensory
delights of varying seasons help build
children’s sense of attachment and
security. Visit local parks regularly to
adopt a favorite tree or garden. If you
have time and space to care for them
well, include a safe, approachable
DOMESTIC VIOLENCE 71
EXCHANGE
In Conclusion
Early childhood programs are often the

first resource beyond extended family
that children encounter. That puts us in
a pivotal position to reach out to victims
of domestic violence early, before trauma
becomes chronic and enduring. If we are
willing to break the silence of domestic
violence, we can help children and families
thrive more fully for a lifetime. Their re-
sulting resilience will benefit us all.
Resources on helping children ex-
posed to domestic violence
Web sites
Young Children Living with Domestic
Violence: The Role of Early Childhood
Programs
www.nccev.org/pdfs/series_paper2.pdf
ResilienceNet
http://resilnet.uiuc.edu
Promoting Resilience: Helping Young Chil-
dren and Parents Affected by Substance
Abuse, Domestic Violence, and Depression
in the Context of Welfare Reform (U.S.)
www.nccp.org./publications/pdf/
text_389.pdf
National Center for Children Exposed to
Violence (NCCEV)
www.nccev.org
Child Welfare Information Gateway: Do-
mestic Violence

www.childwelfare.gov/systemwide/ser-
vice_array/domviolence
How to Support a Child Who Has
Witnessed Violence
www.childwitnesstoviolence.org/help_
achild/help_support.html
Violence and Young Children’s
Development
http://resilnet.uiuc.edu/library/
wallac94.html
respectful expression of anger when-
ever possible, such as “I heard you and
Andy arguing over the wagon. That
was a good idea to reassure him you’d
give it to him next.”
n Post information on community resources
helping victims of domestic violence. Dis-
tribute e-mails announcing community
workshops on parenting and/or men-
tal health. Include resource agencies
and web resources in your newsletter,
parent bulletin board, or on your web
site so any parent can identify help that
is within reach.
n Facilitate family access to intervention ser-
vices as soon as possible. Respectfully and
privately consult with a child’s family
members about your concerns. Make
relevant referrals and check back to
see how referrals worked for families.
When needed, make calls to appropri-

ate social service professionals. Be
prepared to help families identify and
learn how to select suitable family
counselors or play therapists who help
children cope with the emotional up-
heaval of witnessing violence. Strive to
build parent resilience so children can
be inspired by them, too.
n Reporting suspected child abuse or neglect.
In the United States, many organiza-
tions consider exposing children to
home violence a form of parental child
neglect and abuse. However, since such
incidents do, in fact, usually happen
at home behind closed doors, staff
often feels hesitant to report domes-
tic violence incidents to the proper
authorities. There still remains a strong
cultural influence not to intrude or
‘butt into’ a family’s personal life —
especially matters between a child’s
parents. However, to neglect reporting
strong suspicions of domestic vio-
lence — especially when families resist
seeking referral help — merely leaves
children to drift alone and abandoned
in a home characterized by chaotic, out
of control, and frightening events that
are beyond the average adult’s ability
to imagine or grasp.
fanciful place for children to relax and
play while still allowing teachers to vi-
sually supervise. A shaded family-style
porch swing offers casual opportunities

for children to converse with peers or
adults. A trickling water fountain or
wind chimes can ease tense shoulders.
n Role model and coach children in stress
and anger management. Conduct parent
education events where parents learn
to do the same.
n Use positive discipline. Focus on coop-
erative problem solving and peaceful
conflict resolution. Boundaries for
acceptable behavior should be stated
clearly and consistently enforced with
developmentally appropriate conse-
quences.
n Encourage language usage rather than
physical aggression. Ask children to tell
you what they want or need. Remind
children to use language, rather than
grunts, shoves, or hits: “I know it’s
hard to wait for your classmate to give
you more blocks. Tell him calmly you
want more. Pushing him doesn’t make
him want to share with you.”
n Help children learn to recognize symptoms
of anger. Help children recognize and
monitor their unique ‘warning signs’
for anger-overload. They may become
red in the face, grit teeth, tense shoul-
ders, or feel short of breath. When that
happens, prompt the child to notice
the physical sensations as reminders
to calm down. Then suggest ways to

regain calm and composure. For in-
stance, share tips such as slow rhythmic
breathing, listening to music, or play-
ing a physical game.
n Take a stand against physical aggression
and name-calling. Children may be hear-
ing many harsh — even
brutal — statements at home. At child
care, you can give them an alternate
viewpoint. For instance, respond to an
altercation by saying, “I won’t let you
hurt your classmate. I’d never let him
hit you, either. Think of another way to
let him know what you’re feeling.”
n Offer specific feedback and encouragement
for self-control. Comment on a child’s
EXCHANGE
June). Early identification, prevention, and
early intervention with young
children at risk for emotional or behav-
ioral disorders: Issues, trends, and a call
for action. Behavioral Disorders.
Levin, D. (2008, September/October).
Building peaceable classroom communi-
ties: Counteracting the impact of violence
on young children. Exchange, 183, 57-60.

Rafanello, D. (2004, March/April). Child
care for families who are homeless: A
model of comprehensive early childhood
services. Exchange, 156, 58-64.
Weinreb, M. L. (1997). Be a resiliency men-
tor: You may be a lifesaver for a high-risk
child. Young Children.
Zinke, M., & Zinke, L. (2008, September/
October). Domestic violence and the im-
pact on young children. Exchange, 183,
30-34.
askanexpert/stephens2009/sup.htm
Books
Garbarino, J. (2008). Children and the dark
side of human experience: Confronting global
realities and rethinking child development.
New York: Springer Press.
Geffner, R., Jaffe, P., & Sudermann, M.
(Eds.). (2000). Children exposed to domestic
violence. New York: Haworth Press.
Groves, B. M. (2002). Children who see too
much: Lessons from the Child Witness to
Violence Project. Boston: Beacon Press.
Peled, E., Jaffe, P. G., & Edleson, J. L.
(Eds.). (1995). Ending the cycle of violence:
Community responses to children of battered
women. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
Publications.

Articles
Conroy, M. A., & Brown, W. H. (2004,
Safe from the Start: Taking Action on
Children Exposed to Violence
www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/ojjdp/
182789.pdf
Domestic Violence and Abuse: Types,
Signs, Symptoms, Causes, and Effects
www.aaets.org/article144.htm
Caught in the Crossfire: Children and
Domestic Violence
Questions and Answers About
Domestic Violence
www.nctsnet.org/nctsn_assets/pdfs/
QA_Groves_final.pdf
Complex Trauma in Early Childhood
Violence Prevention in Early Childhood:
How Teachers Can Help
http://actagainstviolence.apa.org/
materials/publications/act/
violenceprevention_childhood.pdf
Child Trauma Toolkit for Educators
Child_Trauma_Toolkit_Final.pdf

Psychological and Behavioral Impact of
Trauma: Preschool Children
preschool_children.pdf
Little Eyes, Little Ears: How Violence
against a Mother Shapes Children as
They Grow
www.lfcc.on.ca/little_eyes_little_ears.
html
For Post-traumatic Stress Disorder in
Children: American Academy of Child
and Adolescent Psychiatry
www.aacap.org/cs/root/facts_for_
families/posttraumatic_stress_
disorder_ptsd
Illinois Early Learning Project
Ask An Expert
http://illinoisearlylearning.org/
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Risk Management Program Analysis Part One
1
Unsatisfactory
0.00%
2
Less than Satisfactory
65.00%
3
Satisfactory
75.00%
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Good
85.00%
5
Excellent
100.00%
70.0 %Content
15.0 %Summary Description of the Type of Risk Management
Plan Selected With Rationale
Not included.
A summary description of the type of risk management plan
selected with rationale is somewhat incorporated, but the
information provided is incomplete, inaccurate, or otherwise
deficient.
selected with rationale is incorporated, but minimal detail or
support is provided for one or more components.
selected with rationale is present and incorporated in full. The
submission encompasses essential details and provides
appropriate support.

selected with rationale is present and comprehensive. The
submission further incorporates analysis of supporting evidence
insightfully and provides specific examples with relevance.
Level of detail is appropriate.
15.0 %Description of Recommended Risk Management Program
Administrative Steps and Processes Contrasted With the
Administrative Steps and Processes in the Exemplar
Not included.
A description of recommended risk management program
administrative steps and processes contrasted with the
administrative steps and processes in the exemplar is somewhat
incorporated, but the information provided is incomplete,
inaccurate, or otherwise deficient.
administrative steps and processes in the exemplar is
incorporated, but minimal detail or support is provided for one
or more components.
administrative steps and processes in the exemplar is present
and incorporated in full. The submission encompasses essential
details and provides appropriate support.
administrative steps and processes in the exemplar is present
and comprehensive. The submission further incorporates
analysis of supporting evidence insightfully and provides
specific examples with relevance. Level of detail is appropriate.
15.0 %Analysis of Key Regulatory Agencies and Organizations
Inclusive of Their Roles in the Risk Management Oversight
Process
Not included.

An analysis of key regulatory agencies and organizations
inclusive of their roles in the risk management oversight
process is somewhat incorporated, but the information provided
is incomplete, inaccurate, or otherwise deficient.
process is incorporated, but minimal detail or support is
provided for one or more components.
process is present and incorporated in full. The submission
encompasses essential details and provides appropriate support.
process is present and comprehensive. The submission further
incorporates analysis of supporting evidence insightfully and
provides specific examples with relevance. Level of detail is
appropriate.
15.0 %Evaluation of the Exemplar Risk Management Plan
Regarding Compliance With Relevant American Society of
Healthcare Risk Management (ASHRM) Standards
Not included.
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compliance with relevant ASHRM standards is somewhat
incorporated, but the information provided is incomplete,
inaccurate, or otherwise deficient.
compliance with relevant ASHRM standards is incorporated, but
minimal detail or support is provided for one or more
components.
compliance with relevant ASHRM standards is present and
incorporated in full. The submission encompasses essential
details and provides appropriate support.

compliance with relevant ASHRM standards is present and
comprehensive. The submission further incorporates analysis of
supporting evidence insightfully and provides specific examples
with relevance. Level of detail is appropriate.
10.0 %Recommendations to the Risk Management Program
Exemplar to Enhance, Improve, or Secure Compliance Standards
Not included.
Proposed recommendations to the risk management program
exemplar to enhance, improve, or secure compliance standards
are somewhat incorporated, but the information provided is
incomplete, inaccurate, or otherwise deficient.
are incorporated, but minimal detail or support is provided for
one or more components.
are present and incorporated in full. The submission
encompasses essential details and provides appropriate support.
are present and comprehensive. The submission further
incorporates analysis of supporting evidence insightfully and
provides specific examples with relevance. Level of detail is
appropriate.
20.0 %Organization and Effectiveness
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clear.
Thesis is apparent and appropriate to purpose.
Thesis is clear and forecasts the development of the paper.
Thesis is descriptive and reflective of the arguments and

appropriate to the purpose.
Thesis is comprehensive and contains the essence of the paper.
Thesis statement makes the purpose of the paper clear.
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Sufficient justification of claims is lacking. Argument lacks
consistent unity. There are obvious flaws in the logic. Some
sources have questionable credibility.
Argument is orderly but may have a few inconsistencies. The
argument presents minimal justification of claims. Argument
logically, but not thoroughly, supports the purpose. Sources
used are credible. Introduction and conclusion bracket the
thesis.
Argument shows logical progression. Techniques of
argumentation are evident. There is a smooth progression of
claims from introduction to conclusion. Most sources are
authoritative.
Clear and convincing argument presents a persuasive claim in a
distinctive and compelling manner. All sources are
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5.0 %Mechanics of Writing (includes spelling, punctuation,
grammar, language use)
Surface errors are pervasive enough that they impede
communication of meaning. Inappropriate word choice and/or
sentence construction are used.
Frequent and repetitive mechanical errors distract the reader.
Inconsistencies in language and/or word choice are present.
Sentence structure is correct but not varied.

Some mechanical errors or typos are present but are not overly
distracting to the reader. Correct and varied sentence structure
and audience-appropriate language are employed.
Prose is largely free of mechanical errors, although a few may
be present. The writer uses a variety of effective sentence
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100 %Total Weightage
Resilience Among Children Exposed to Domestic Violence: The
Role of Risk
and Protective Factors
Cecilia Martinez-Torteya, G. Anne Bogat, Alexander von Eye,
and Alytia A. Levendosky
Michigan State University
Individual and family characteristics that predict resilience
among children exposed to domestic violence
(DV) were examined. Mother–child dyads (n = 190) were
assessed when the children were 2, 3, and 4 years
of age. DV-exposed children were 3.7 times more likely than
nonexposed children to develop internalizing or
externalizing problems. However, 54% of DV-exposed children
maintained positive adaptation and were
characterized by easy temperament (odds ratio [OR] = .39, d =
.52) and nondepressed mothers (OR = 1.14,
d = .07), as compared to their nonresilient counterparts. Chronic
DV was associated with maternal depression,
difficult child temperament, and internalizing or externalizing
symptoms. Results underscore heterogeneous
outcomes among DV-exposed children and the influence of
individual and family characteristics on children’s
adaptation.
Using a person-oriented approach, this longitudinal

study examined the individual and family factors
that predict resilience among young children (from
ages 2 to 4) exposed to domestic violence (DV;
defined as male aggression toward a female
partner). Research has consistently documented the
negative effects of DV exposure on children’s
adaptation (e.g., Kitzmann, Gaylord, Holt, &
Kenny, 2003), but very few studies have explored
what characteristics typify DV-exposed children
who maintain positive adaptation (Grych, Jouriles,
Swank, McDonald, & Norwood, 2000; Hughes &
Luke, 1998). Longitudinal studies with high-risk
samples (not DV exposed) have previously
identified a variety of individual and family factors
that predict and hinder resilience (e.g., Tiet et al.,
1998; Wyman et al., 1999), but the role of these
factors has not been delineated in the context of DV
exposure.
DV and Its Negative Effects on Children
DV-exposed children are approximately 2 times
more likely than nonexposed children to exhibit
internalizing and externalizing problems (Stern-
berg, Baradaran, Abbott, Lamb, & Guterman, 2006).
Among young children, the trauma of exposure is
likely to disrupt the development of basic compe-
tencies, threatening the child’s ability to process
and manage emotions effectively and increasing
internalizing and externalizing behaviors (Cole,
Zahn-Waxler, Fox, Usher, & Welsh, 1996). For
example, young DV-exposed children experience
more distress in response to interadult conflict than
their nonexposed peers (DeJonghe, Bogat, Levendo-
sky, von Eye, & Davidson, 2005), and trauma

symptoms have been reported in children as young
as age 1 (Bogat, DeJonghe, Levendosky, Davidson,
& von Eye, 2006).
Overall, children exposed to DV are at risk to
develop both internalizing and externalizing prob-
lems (e.g., Sternberg et al., 2006). However, chil-
dren’s outcomes vary widely, and many children
have adequate behavioral and emotional function-
ing despite witnessing DV. Research has reported
resilience rates from 31% to 65% (Grych et al., 2000;
Hughes & Luke, 1998) among school-age children.
These studies suggest that positive adaptation is
associated with less partner-to-mother physical
aggression, shorter duration of DV exposure, per-
ception of the conflict as less threatening, less self-
blame, and absence of maternal depression (Grych
et al., 2000; Hughes & Luke, 1998). However, the
scope of these studies was limited, and many
individual and family characteristics that have been
This research was supported by a grant from the National
Institute of Justice (8-7958-MI-IJ) and Centers for Disease
Control
(R49 ⁄ CCR ⁄ 518519-03-1) to the second, third, and fourth
authors.
Portions of this paper were presented at the Society for
Research
in Child Development biennial meeting in Boston, Massachu-
setts, in March 2006.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to
Cecilia Martinez-Torteya, Clinical Psychology, Michigan State
University, Psychology Building, East Lansing, MI. Electronic
mail may be sent to [email protected]
Child Development, March/April 2009, Volume 80, Number 2,

Pages 562–577
� 2009, Copyright the Author(s)
Journal Compilation � 2009, Society for Research in Child
Development, Inc.
All rights reserved. 0009-3920/2009/8002-0019
identified as protective factors among other
high-risk samples (e.g., positive parenting, easy
temperament) were not assessed. In addition, these
studies were cross-sectional, and early develop-
mental trajectories associated with resilience or
recovery were not investigated.
The present research explored a number of fac-
tors relevant to young children’s adaptation identi-
fied by previous research with high-risk children:
child’s easy temperament, child’s cognitive ability,
positive parenting, maternal depression, stressful
life events, low income, and minority status. Indi-
vidual- and family-level factors are consistent with
the guidelines for research on resilience recom-
mended by Luthar, Sawyer, and Brown (2006)
including (a) saliency to life context (young chil-
dren’s reliance on their caregivers, high prevalence
of maternal depression and stressful life events in
DV households), (b) enduring characteristics (rela-
tive stability of temperament and cognitive ability),
and (c) contribution to the development of other
assets (impact on children’s self-regulation and cop-
ing skills).
Defining Resilience

Resilience has been defined as the maintenance of
healthy ⁄ successful functioning or adaptation within
the context of a significant adversity or threat
(Garmezy, 1993; Luthar, Cicchetti, & Becker, 2000;
Masten & Obradovic, 2006). Thus, two elements
must co-occur for resilience to be present: a circum-
stance that has the potential to disrupt children’s
development and reasonably successful adaptation
(Luthar et al., 2000; Masten, 2001). Multiple defini-
tions have been used to measure risk or adversity;
an individual risk model explores the contribution of
one risk factor to the development of negative
outcomes (e.g., child maltreatment), whereas a
cumulative risk model asserts that accumulation of
adversity results in maladaptation (Rutter, 1979).
Despite the widespread use of both models in the
study of resilience, cumulative risk models provide
limited insight into unique characteristics that
provide protection in the context of a particular risk
(i.e., DV); thus, individual risk models might be
better suited to identify predictors of resilience in
the children exposed to DV.
Likewise, positive adaptation has been defined
in several ways, including absence of psychopathol-
ogy (Tiet et al., 1998), behavioral and cognitive
competence (Kim-Cohen, Moffitt, Caspi, & Taylor,
2004), and mastery of appropriate developmental
tasks (Masten, 2001). Masten and Obradovic (2006)
emphasize the importance of both external adapta-
tion to the environment and internal sense of well-
being as part of a comprehensive assessment of
resilience. Moreover, resilience is better character-
ized as a dynamic process, because individuals can
be resilient to specific environmental hazards or

resilient at one time period but not another (Rutter,
2006).
Consistent with an individual risk model, the
present study used DV exposure as the index of
adversity; other risk factors (maternal depression,
stressful life events, minority status, and low
income) that might heighten the negative effects of
DV or individually contribute to disruptions in chil-
dren’s adaptation were also explored. To incorpo-
rate indices of both external and internal
functioning, positive adaptation is defined as the
maintenance of nonclinical levels of both internaliz-
ing and externalizing behaviors over time.
Risk and Protective Factors
Broadly defined, protective or promotive factors
refer to the characteristics that enhance adaptation,
whereas the terms vulnerability and risk are used for
the factors that increase the likelihood of maladap-
tation. However, there are some inconsistencies
associated with the use of these terms (Luthar
et al., 2000). Some authors have used an internal
versus external classification, in which vulnerability
refers to the individual’s biologically based traits,
whereas risk concerns environmental threats to
adaptation (e.g., Shannon, Beauchaine, Brenner,
Neuhaus, & Gatzke-Kopp, 2007). Other authors
propose a classification based on an interaction
with adversity, such that risk and compensatory fac-
tors have a similar effect on the whole population
(individuals who are and are not exposed to adver-
sity), whereas vulnerability and protective factors
influence outcomes only under high-risk conditions
(e.g., Steinhausen & Metzke, 2001).

Despite conceptual inconsistencies, research has
reliably reported a number of characteristics associ-
ated with resilience, including a positive and sup-
portive caregiver–child relationship, competent
(structured and warm) parenting, positive caregiver
mental health, child easy ⁄ engaging temperament,
and child’s higher cognitive ability (Masten et al.,
1999; Tiet et al., 1998; Wyman et al., 1999). Research
has also found that positive adaptation is associated
with lower levels of risk, including less parental
psychopathology, life stress, and poverty, as well as
being a member of a majority ethnic group (Bradley
& Corwyn, 2002; Leech, Larkby, Day, & Day, 2006).
Child Resilience to Domestic Violence 563
Interestingly, the profiles of resilient children
resemble those of competent children who are not
exposed to adversity or high risk (Masten et al.,
1999).
The present study focuses on characteristics at
the family level (positive parenting, maternal
depression, stressful life events, and low income)
and individual level (easy temperament, high cog-
nitive ability, race) that might influence children’s
adaptation. The term risk is used to describe envi-
ronmental characteristics that have been commonly
associated with increases in child behavioral ⁄ emo-
tional problems (maternal depression, stressful life
events, minority status, and low income), whereas
protective factor will be used for the environmental
and individual characteristics that are associated

with an increase in positive adaptation (including
promoting effects, child easy temperament, positive
parenting, child high cognitive ability).
Protective Factors: Positive Parenting, Child Easy
Temperament, and Cognitive Ability
Positive Parenting
Parental warmth, positive expectations, support,
and low derogation predict children’s behavioral
and emotional adaptation under a wide variety of
adverse circumstances (Katz & Gottman, 1997;
Kim-Cohen et al., 2004). Among DV-exposed chil-
dren, high maternal authority or control is associ-
ated with more positive and less antisocial
behaviors (Levendosky & Graham-Bermann, 2000),
and effective parenting is associated with decreased
externalizing behaviors (Levendosky, Huth-Bocks,
Shapiro, & Semel, 2003). Thus, children whose
mothers are available and supportive will be better
able to develop self-regulation abilities within the
context of effective mother–child interactions
(Wyman et al., 1999).
Child Temperament
At-risk children with easy temperaments (regu-
larity, approachability, high adaptability, positive
mood, low reactivity; Thomas & Chess, 1985) show
fewer behavior problems than children with diffi-
cult temperaments (Kim-Cohen et al., 2004; Smith
& Prior, 1995; Tschann, Kaiser, Chesney, Alkon, &
Boyce, 1996). Children with easy temperaments are
less reactive to stressors and more likely to utilize
active and flexible coping strategies to deal with

stress (Compas, Connor-Smith, & Jaser, 2004); they
are also better able to regulate their feelings of sad-
ness and anger (Olson, Bates, Sandy, & Schilling,
2002). Research examining the moderating effect of
child’s temperament on DV-exposed children’s
adaptation is sparse. For example, DeJonghe et al.
(2005) found that temperament predicted infants’
observed distress to verbal conflict among children
not exposed to DV but not among exposed chil-
dren. However, no studies to date have examined
the link between temperament and internalizing
and externalizing problems in the context of DV.
Cognitive Ability
High intelligence has also been associated with
positive adaptation in the face of adversity (Jaffee,
Caspi, Moffitt, Polo-Tomas, & Taylor, 2007; Tiet
et al., 1998) and is predictive of lower levels of psy-
chiatric disorders, lower rates of conduct problems,
and higher levels of overall functioning (Malcarne,
Hamilton, Ingram, & Taylor, 2000). Similar studies
with DV-exposed samples are sparse but suggest
that IQ is negatively associated with behavioral
problems (Kolbo, 1996). Well-developed verbal cog-
nitive abilities may facilitate verbal mediation of
conflict and therefore lead to more appropriate
behavioral choices and a wider range of coping
strategies (Buckner, Mezzacappa, & Beardslee,
2003).
Risk Factors: Maternal Depression, Stressful Negative
Life Events, Income, and Race
Maternal Depression

Maternal depression has been associated with
negative child adjustment among high-risk chil-
dren (Tiet et al., 1998) as well as DV-exposed chil-
dren (e.g., Levendosky, Leahy, Bogat, Davidson, &
von Eye, 2006). Levendosky et al. (2006) found
that maternal functioning (posttraumatic stress
disorder, depression, anxiety, and self-esteem)
mediated the relation between DV exposure and
preschoolers’ externalizing problems. A depressed
mother’s unavailability may lead her child to
expect rejection and feel helpless. Depressed
mothers might also model maladaptive emotion
regulation strategies; for example, Kliewer et al.
(2004) found that mothers who are unable to man-
age effectively their own feelings of sadness have
children with more internalizing problems. Alter-
natively, the depressed mother’s predisposition to
psychopathology may be inherited by her child
and activated by the stress of exposure to marital
violence (Jaffee, 2005).
564 Martinez-Torteya, Bogat, von Eye, and Levendosky
Stressful Life Events
The accumulation of stressful life events is also
associated with children’s emotional and behavioral
problems (Smith & Prior, 1995). Among children
exposed to DV, mothers’ reports of stressful life
events are a significant predictor of children’s
increased behavior problems and decreased social
competence (Levendosky et al., 2003). The experi-
ence of stressful life events increases the environ-

mental demands on the mother–child dyad, such
that the mother’s parenting can be negatively
affected and the child might become sensitized to
stressful situations (Davies, Winter, & Cicchetti,
2006).
Race and Low Income
Research on the effects of racial background on
the development of internalizing and externalizing
problems has shown mixed results. For example,
Leech et al. (2006) found that being African Ameri-
can was a predictor of higher levels of depression
and anxiety. On the other hand, a higher incidence
of depression and behavioral problems among
White children, as compared to minority children,
has also been reported (Gerard & Buehler, 2004).
Additionally, children in poor families are more
likely to develop behavioral and emotional prob-
lems than children in middle and upper income
families (Bradley & Corwyn, 2002), and low income
is associated with a relatively high prevalence of
other risk factors, such as maternal psychiatric
symptoms, life stress, and ineffective parenting
(e.g., McLoyd, 1998).
Person Orientation
Current research primarily uses a variable-
oriented approach to study the effects of DV on chil-
dren’s development (Levendosky, Bogat, & von Eye,
2007). However, aggregating all participants in a
single group (e.g., children exposed to DV) may mis-
represent the individuals within the group in many
important aspects. Alternatively, the person-ori-
ented approach assumes that individuals are unique

and behavior can be understood through the pre-
dictable patterns that occur across the dependent
and independent variables (Bogat, Levendosky, &
von Eye, 2005). Person-oriented research ascertains
the complex and multifaceted nature of child devel-
opment by examining the patterns that result from
the interassociations among variables at various eco-
logical levels (Bergman & Magnusson, 1997).
Person-focused approaches to resilience allow
the researcher to explore specific patterns and local
associations that exist within groups, identifying
individuals with positive versus negative function-
ing (Masten, 2001). Complex designs include four
groups of children that differ in their levels of
adversity and adaptation. However, the profiles of
risk and protection have not been investigated in
the context of DV exposure. For the present
research, the four-group model proposed by
Masten was used, and groups were defined as
follows: Resilient children are exposed to DV and
are positively adapted, nonresilient children are
exposed to DV and are negatively adapted, compe-
tent children are not exposed to DV and are posi-
tively adapted, and vulnerable children are not
exposed to DV and are negatively adapted.
Hypotheses
Consistent with previous research, we expected
to find a group of young children who showed
resilience to DV. However, DV-exposed children
were hypothesized to be more likely to develop
emotional and behavioral problems than were non-
exposed children, and longer duration and higher
frequency of DV exposure were expected to pre-

dict internalizing and externalizing symptoms.
Family and individual characteristics that were
hypothesized to predict resilience included posi-
tive parenting, child’s easy temperament, and
child’s high cognitive ability. Nonresilience was
expected to be characterized by maternal depres-
sion, more stressful negative life events, low
income, and ethnic minority status. Resilient chil-
dren were predicted to display characteristics simi-
lar to competent nonexposed children.
Additionally, specific configurations of adversity
(e.g., early vs. late DV exposure), risk, and protec-
tive factors were hypothesized to be associated
with positive and negative adaptation.
Method
Participants
The present research is part of a larger, longitudi-
nal study that explores the effects of DV on women
and their children (Bogat, Levendosky, & Davidson,
1999; Levendosky, Bogat, Davidson, & von Eye,
2000). Participants of the original study were 206
pregnant women recruited from urban, suburban,
and rural areas in a Midwestern state. The study
oversampled for DV in order to obtain two
relatively equal numbered groups: women who expe-
rienced violence during pregnancy and nonexposed
women with similar demographic characteristics.
Sixteen mother–child dyads from the original

sample were excluded because of mother’s death
(n = 2), child’s death (n = 2), loss of custody (n = 6),
mother’s imprisonment (n = 1), or withdrawal from
the study before the child’s first birthday (n = 5).
The excluded participants did not differ from the
current study sample on demographic characteris-
tics, such as maternal age, maternal race, child’s race
or child’s gender. Excluded women reported lower
family income as well as higher levels of DV and
depression at the first assessment period (third
trimester of pregnancy).
Participants for the current study were 190 chil-
dren (95 boys) and their mothers who were
assessed yearly when the children were ages 2, 3,
and 4. Forty-seven percent of the children were
Caucasian, 25% African American, 23% multiracial,
2% Hispanic, 2% Native American, and 1% Asian
American. The median monthly family income
when children were 2 years old was $2,542
(SD = $2,187), and the average age of mothers was
27.38 (SD = 4.99).
Measures
Screening Instrument: DV
A subset of items from the 14-item Verbal and
Physical Aggression scales of the Conflict Tactics
Scales (CTS; Straus, 1979) were used to classify
women’s DV experiences prior to the interview
(Items 6 to 14; e.g., ‘‘Threatened you with a gun or
knife’’). Straus, Hamby, Boney-McCoy, and Sugar-
man (1996) reported an internal consistency of
a = .58 for the verbal and physical aggression scale.
For the present study, internal consistency was

good (a = .88).
Grouping Variables
DV. The 46-item Severity of Violence Against
Women Scales (SVAWS; Marshall, 1992) assessed
violent behaviors and threats that the woman had
experienced from her partner during the last year
on a 4-point frequency scale. A total score is
obtained by adding all items (0 to 138); higher
scores represent more frequent abuse. High internal
consistency (a = .97) has been previously reported
(Huth-Bocks, Levendosky, & Semel, 2001). For the
present study scores ranged from 0 to 94 and
internal consistency was excellent (a = .95 at age 2,
a = .94 at age 3, a = .94 at age 4). Children were
assigned to the DV group if their mothers endorsed
any DV item at any of the three time periods. A DV
dichotomous score (present or absent) was also
created for each time period. A duration of DV
score (0–3) was computed by adding the number
of time periods in which the woman reported
experiencing DV.
Child’s behavioral adaptation. Developmentally
appropriate versions of the Child Behavior
Checklist (99-item CBCL 2–3, Achenbach, 1992;
113-item CBCL 4–18, Achenbach, 1991) assessed
children’s behavioral and emotional functioning at
each time period. Mothers rated each item on a
3-point scale. There are two broadband subscales:
Internalizing and Externalizing. T scores (30–100)
were used with higher scores reflecting more
frequent ⁄ severe symptoms. Excellent internal
consistency (as = .90–.96) has been reported for

the broadband scales (Achenbach, 1991, 1992). In
this study, scores ranged from 30 to 72 for Inter-
nalizing (a = .81 at age 2, a = .77 at age 3, a = .69
at age 4) and 30 to 77 for Externalizing (a = .89 at
age 2, a = .90 at age 3, a = .85 at age 4). Children
were classified as positively adapted if their CBCL
scores were lower than 60 for both scales at all
time periods. Children with scores equal to or
higher than 60 (i.e., clinical cutoff; Achenbach,
1992) on either scale at one or more time periods
were classified as negatively adapted.
Protective Factors
Maternal positive parenting. The nurturing (20
items; e.g., ‘‘I read to my child at bedtime’’) and
discipline (30 items; e.g., ‘‘I send my child to bed
as a punishment’’) subscales of the Parent Behav-
ior Checklist (PBC; Fox, 1994) were used to assess
maternal parenting. Responses are scored on a
4-point scale. For the present study, the discipline
(reverse coded; higher scores reflect less harsh
discipline) and nurturing scores were summed to
create a composite positive parenting variable
(50–200); higher scores indicate more consistent
discipline, less punishment, and more nurturing
parenting. High internal consistency has been
reported for the Nurturing (a = .82) and Disci-
pline (a = .91) scales (Fox, 1994). For the present
study, positive parenting scores ranged from
142 to 199 and showed good internal consistency
(a = .79 at age 2, a = .77 at age 3, a = .74 at
age 4).

Child temperament. Temperament characteristics
were assessed using the Carey Temperament Scales
(97-item Toddler Temperament Scale at age 2,
Fullard, McDevitt, & Carey, 1984; 100-item
Behavioral Style Questionnaire at ages 3 and 4,
McDevitt & Carey, 1978). Mothers rated their
child’s attitudes and behavior on a 6-point scale.
For this study, the rhythmicity, adaptability,
approach, intensity, and mood scales were added
to create an easy temperament variable (5–30;
Saylor, Boyce, & Price, 2003). Adequate internal
consistency has been reported for this composite
(a = .87; Bogat et al., 2006). For the present study,
scores ranged from 15 to 24 and showed good
internal consistency (a = .85 at age 2, a = .85 at age
3, a = .81 at age 4). A dichotomous variable was
also created based on the median score (19):
Children whose score was greater than the median
were classified as having easy temperament; those
with scores lower than or equal to the median were
classified as difficult.
Child cognitive ability. This was the only measure
given at just one time point (age 4). Children’s cog-
nitive ability was measured using the Peabody Pic-
ture Vocabulary Test–Third Edition (PPVT–III;
Dunn & Dunn, 1997). The PPVT–III is a 204-item
measure of verbal ability for children ages 2.5 and
up. Children are asked to select which of four
black-and-white illustrations best represents a word
read aloud by the interviewer. Age-normed scores
(40–160) have a mean of 100 (SD = 10), and higher
scores reflect better cognitive functioning. Good
internal consistency (as = .93–.98.) and test–retest

reliability (rs = .89–.97) have been reported (Dunn
& Dunn, 1997). For the present sample, scores
ranged from 55 to 132.
Risk Factors
Maternal depression. Mother’s symptoms of
depression were assessed using the 21-item self-
report Beck Depression Inventory (BDI; Beck, Men-
delson, Mock, & Erbaugh, 1961). Participants select
the best self-description from four evaluative state-
ments with values from 0 to 3. A total score (0–63) is
obtained; higher scores reflect more severe symp-
toms. Good internal consistency (a = .86; Beck, Steer,
& Garbin, 1988) has been reported. For the present
study, scores ranged from 0 to 27 (a = .87 at age 2,
a = .90 at age 3, a = .90 at age 4). A dichotomous
score was used (Beck et al., 1988); scores greater than
or equal to 10 reflect mild to severe depression,
whereas scores less than 10 indicate no depression.
Stressful negative life events. Maternal stress asso-
ciated with negative life changes was assessed
using the 49-item Life Experiences Survey (LES;
Sarason, Johnson, & Siegel, 1978). Respondents
rated the occurrence and impact of 46 specific
events (e.g., ‘‘Death of a close family member’’)
during the last year on a 7-point scale, ranging
from extremely negative ()3) to extremely positive (3).
For the present study all the negative item ratings
were summed ()1 to )3). Scores ranged from 0 to
)147; lower scores indicate a greater degree of
stress. Good test–retest reliability has been reported
(r = .88; Sarason et al., 1978). For the present study,
scores ranged from 0 to )25 (a = .60 at age 2,
a = .68 at age 3, a = .71 at age 4).

Income and race. Participants reported their mean
monthly family income at each time period, and
the three scores were averaged into a total income
score, ranging from $400 to $11,333. Mothers
identified their child’s race (White ⁄ Caucasian,
Black ⁄ African American, biracial ⁄ mixed, Native
American, Asian American ⁄ Pacific Islander, and
Latino ⁄ Hispanic ⁄ Chicano). Because of the small
number of children in the last three groups as well
as the large number of children in the biracial
group, the racial grouping White or non-White was
used in the analyses.
Procedures
Participants were recruited from a Midwestern
state through flyers distributed to organizations
serving women as well as flyers posted in the
community. Interested pregnant women contacted
the project office and were screened by a research
assistant to determine eligibility: (a) 18 to 40 years
old, (b) able to understand English well enough to
complete interviews and questionnaires, and (c)
involved in a romantic relationship for at least
6 weeks during pregnancy. Items 6 to 14 of the
Conflict Tactics Scale (CTS; Straus, 1979) were
administered during the telephone interview, after
approximately half of the original sample had been
recruited and interviewed (n = 96), in order to
ensure that about 50% of the final sample
experienced DV during pregnancy. Women were
categorized as experiencing DV if they indicated that
any of the CTS events occurred during pregnancy.
One hundred and sixty-one women were excluded
because they did not meet age, relationship status,

or DV criteria; there were no demographic
differences between these excluded women and
participants. The final participants were
demographically representative of the area where
they were recruited.
All women were first interviewed for the larger
study during their last trimester of pregnancy. For
the present research, interviews occurred at the
child’s second, third, and fourth birthdays. Mother
and child were interviewed at the project offices
and mothers completed all measures, except the
child’s cognitive ability test. Interviews were con-
ducted by graduate student project staff members
and trained undergraduate research assistants. The
DV questionnaires were administered last, to
ensure that interviewers were blind to the woman’s
abuse status for as long as possible. Interviews took
about 2 to 3 hr to complete. Women were paid
for their participation, and children received an
age-appropriate gift.
Results
Missing Data and Data Reduction
Missing data were imputed using the Hot Deck
method (LISREL; Jöreskog & Sörbom, 1996). One
case could not be imputed through this procedure
and was imputed using the expectation-maximiza-
tion algorithm (EM algorithm; SYSTAT 11, 2004).

Overall, only 8% of all data points were imputed.
Missing data estimates for all the variables
were based on total DV, maternal depression,
and income at pregnancy, as well as child’s
temperament at 2 months old. All transformations,
composites, and dichotomizations of continuous
scores were conducted after imputation.
Correlations between missingness dichotomous
variables (missing data = 1, complete data = 0) and
the original variables were either nonsignificant or
small (r < .30), indicating a nonsystematic pattern
of attrition. Additionally, when participants were
classified into complete data versus missing data
groups, there were no significant differences in
total DV exposure, maternal depression, or income
at pregnancy. Therefore, the imputed data set was
used in all analyses.
Most predictor variables (except for race and
cognitive ability) were measured at ages 2, 3, and
4, and all showed relative stability over time
(rs = .29–.66). To attain more parsimonious models
and avoid multicollinearity, average scores for all
variables were used in analyses. The averaged
predictors showed small- to medium-size associa-
tions among themselves (rs = .10–.54) and with
children’s internalizing and externalizing behav-
iors (rs = .08–.57).
Hypothesis Testing
DV Exposure and the Odds of Resilience
To address the first hypothesis, DV and adapta-
tion were cross-classified to obtain four groups of

children: (a) resilient: exposed to DV and displayed
positive adaptation (n = 62), (b) nonresilient:
exposed to DV and displayed negative adaptation
(n = 51), (c) competent: not exposed to DV and dis-
played positive adaptation (n = 63), and (d) vulnera-
ble: never exposed to DV and displayed negative
adaptation (n = 14; see Table 1). Fifty-four percent
of DV-exposed children displayed resilience,
whereas 82% of nonexposed children showed
positive adaptation. Odds ratio (OR) analysis of the
four group frequencies showed a strong main effect
for DV exposure, indicating that DV-exposed chil-
dren were 3.7 times (95% confidence interval
[CI] = 1.86, 7.36, d = .72) more likely to develop
behavioral or emotional problems.
Adaptation and DV duration (zero to three time
periods of exposure) were cross-classified to deter-
mine the link between prolonged exposure and the
likelihood of positive adaptation. Eight groups of
children were obtained (see Table 1): four with
positive adaptation (not exposed to DV, n = 63;
exposed at one time period, n = 30; exposed at two
time periods, n = 16; and exposed at three time
periods, n = 16); and four with negative adaptation
(not exposed to DV, n = 14; exposed at one time
period, n = 18; exposed at two time periods, n = 14;
and exposed at three time periods, n = 19). Positive
adapation was achieved by 62% of children
exposed during one time period, 55% exposed dur-
ing two time periods, and 45% exposed during
three time periods. OR analysis showed that
children in all the DV-exposed groups were
significantly more likely to show externalizing or
Table 1

Group Frequencies: Cross Classification of Adaptation by
Domestic
Violence (DV) Exposure and DV Duration
Positive
adaptation
Negative
adaptation
No DV exposure 63 14
DV exposure 62 51
DV duration (No.
of time periods)
DV duration (No.
of time periods)
1 2 3 1 2 3
30 16 16 18 14 19
internalizing problems, with effect sizes ranging
from medium to large (one time exposure,

OR = 2.7, 95% CI = 1.19, 6.15, d = .55; two times,
OR = 3.94, 95% CI = 1.57, 9.90, d = .76; and three
times, OR = 5.34, 95% CI = 2.12, 12.91, d = .93).
However, among DV-exposed children, longer
duration of DV exposure did not significantly
increase the likelihood of negative adaptation (one
vs. two times, OR = 1.46, 95% CI = .58, 3.68;
two vs. three times, OR = 1.36, 95% CI = .51, 3.61;
and one vs. three times, OR = 1.98, 95% CI = .82,
4.79).
The cross-classification of Adaptation · DV
Duration suggested that the number of positively
adapted children diminished with prolonged DV
exposure, whereas the number of children with
internalizing or externalizing problems remained
fairly constant (see Table 2). Log-linear modeling
was used to elucidate this trajectory. First, a main
effects model (DV Duration · Adaptation) was esti-
mated. The model showed significant lack of fit, LR
v2(3, N = 190) = 16.98, p = .00, and indicated that a
linear trajectory does not provide an accurate repre-
sentation of the groups’ observed frequencies.
Alternatively, a nonstandard model (Mair & von
Eye, 2007) including three variables (the main effect
of adaptation and independent DV duration main
effects for positively adapted and negatively
adapted children) was estimated, with high power
(.93) to detect medium-sized effects (Gpower;
Erdfelder, Faul, & Buchner, 1996).
The model showed adequate fit, LR v2(4, N = 190)
= 3.64, p = .46, and Pearson v2(4, N = 190) = 3.69,
p = .45, and revealed significant main effects of DV
duration for positively adapted children (z = )5.91,

p = .00), but not for negatively adapted children
(z = 0.61, p = .53). Thus, the number of positively
adapted children significantly decreased and the
number of negatively adapted children remained
constant as the number of exposure periods
increased.
Protective and Risk Factors
Multinomial logistic regression (Hosmer & Lem-
eshow, 1989) was conducted (SPSS 14.0) to examine
the second research hypothesis. Group status (resil-
ient, nonresilient, competent, or vulnerable) was
predicted using a main effects model with the pro-
tective (i.e., positive parenting, easy temperament,
and cognitive ability) and risk factors (i.e., maternal
depression, stressful life events, low income, and
race) entered in the first step, using the resilient
group as the comparison group. Power for detect-
ing medium-sized effects in this analysis was high
(.95). The model was also estimated using family
size as a covariate, to control for its influence on
socioeconomic status (SES), and results remained
unchanged.
The main effects model showed significantly
better fit than the null model, LR v2(21,
N = 190) = 131.24, p = .00, and the overall model fit
was excellent, LR v2(546, N = 190) = 353.89,
p = 1.00, and Pearson v2(546, N = 190) = 559.27,
p = .34. Taken together, the main effects of all pre-
dictors explained a large amount of variance in
Table 2
Descriptive Statistics by Group

Resilient
(n = 62)
Non resilient
(n = 51)
Competent
(n = 63)
Vulnerable
(n = 14)
Mean (SD) Mean (SD) Mean (SD) Mean (SD)
Race 47% White
53% non-White
35% White
65% non-White
60% White
40% non-White
36% White
64% non-White
Income 2281.10 (1130.49) 1862.71 (1193.22) 3266.18 (2328.31)

2891.27(2650.82)
Maternal Depression 5.68 (4.73) 9.90 (6.03) 3.16 (2.79) 10.40
(8.73)
Negative Life Events )6.21 (4.35) )7.83 (4.83) )3.08 (3.22)
)5.31 (3.60)
Positive Parenting 172.22 (10.50) 168.18 (11.95) 180.03 (11.67)
174.86 (13.99)
Easy Temperament 19.43 (1.43) 17.86 (1.32) 20.00 (1.51) 18.10
(1.41)
Cognitive Ability 93.35 (18.25) 90.94 (19.63) 101.32 (18.21)
95.14 (16.34)
DV Frequency 7.05 (11.04) 5.88 (6.18)
DV Duration 1.78 (0.83) 2.02 (0.86)
Internalizing 41.76 (5.36) 50.62 (5.35) 39.98 (4.81) 50.19
(5.46)
Externalizing 45.12 (5.50) 55.58 (5.68) 42.40 (5.03) 54.69
(6.15)
Note. Domestic violence (DV) Frequency and DV duration were
not calculated for the non-exposed groups.
group membership (Nagelkerke R2 = .54); how-
ever, only negative life events, LR v2(3,
N = 190) = 368.03, p = .00; maternal depression, LR

v2(3, N = 190) = 377.69, p = .00; and child’s easy
temperament LR v2(3, N = 190) = 394.33, p < .00,
emerged as significant predictors (see Table 3). Pre-
dictors showed small- to medium-sized effects.
Children who exhibited higher levels of easy tem-
perament (OR = .39, 95% CI = .26, .58, d = .52) and
whose mothers reported less depression
(OR = 1.14, 95% CI = 1.03, 1.25, d = .07) were more
likely to be classified resilient than nonresilient.
Additionally, resilient children experienced more
stressful life events (OR = 1.22, 95% CI = 1.07, 1.40,
d = .11) than competent nonexposed children. The
three predictors also significantly discriminated
resilient children from their vulnerable peers: Chil-
dren in the vulnerable group experienced fewer
stressful life events (OR = 1.26, 95% CI = 1.03, 1.55,
d = .13), had more difficult temperaments
(OR = .37, 95% CI = .21, .65, d = .55), and had
mothers with higher levels of depression
(OR = 1.26, 95% CI = 1.10, 1.44, d = .13). Impor-
tantly, this group of children was not exposed to
DV, but did encounter other environmental risks or
vulnerabilities, such as more depressed mothers
and more difficult temperaments.
DV duration and frequency could not be
incorporated in the previous model because the
nonexposed groups had zero variance. Therefore,
binomial logistic regression was conducted only
with DV-exposed children (n = 113). Race,
income, positive parenting, easy temperament,
cognitive ability, maternal depression, stressful
life events, DV frequency, and DV duration were
entered simultaneously in the first step of the
model. Power for detecting medium-sized effects
was adequate (.86). The main effects model

showed significantly better fit than the null
model, LR v2(9, n = 113) = 47.22, p = .00, and
had overall good fit, Hosmer–Lemeshow v2(8,
n = 113) = 12.93, p = .11, explaining a large
percentage of the variance (Nagelkerke R2 = .46).
Maternal depression (OR = 1.14, 95% CI = 1.02,
1.28, d = .07) and easy temperament (OR = 0.46,
95% CI = 0.31, 0.68, d = .43) emerged again as
significant predictors of resilience, with small
to medium effect sizes. Income, race, DV
duration, or average frequency of DV did not
(see Table 4).
Configurations of DV Exposure, Protective, and Risk
Factors
To test the association between specific
trajectories of DV exposure (e.g., early vs. late
exposure, chronic vs. intermittent exposure) and
resilience, prediction configural frequency analysis
Table 3
Multinomial (Four Groups) Logistic Regression Predicting
Resilience
Nonresilient Competent Vulnerable
B OR (CI) B OR (CI) B OR (CI)
Race .60 1.83 (0.69–4.84) ).11 .90 (0.38–2.13) 1.12 3.07 (.65–
14.52)
Income .00 1.00 (0.99–1.00) .00 1.00 (1.00–1.00) .00 1.00
(1.00–1.00)

Maternal depression .13* 1.14 (1.03–1.25) ).02 .98 (0.86–1.11)
.23* 1.26 (1.10–1.44)
Negative life events .02 1.02 (0.92–1.13) .20* 1.22 (1.07–1.40)
.23* 1.26 (1.03–1.55)
Positive parenting .01 1.01 (0.97–1.06) .03 1.03 (0.99–1.08) .04
1.04 (0.98–1.11)
Easy temperament ).94* .39 (0.26–0.58) .07 1.07 (0.81–1.42)
)1.00* .37 (0.21–0.65)
Cognitive ability .02 1.02 (0.99–1.05) .01 1.01 (0.99–1.03) .02
1.02 (0.98–1.07)
Note. LR v2(546, N = 190) = 353.89, p = 1.00; Pearson v2(546,
N = 190) = 559.27, p = .34; Nagelkerke R2 = .54; reference
group: resilient.
*p < .05.
Table 4
Binary (Two Group) Logistic Regression Predicting Resilience
Wald p OR CI
Race 2.05 .15 0.47 0.17–1.32
Income 2.57 .11 1.00 0.99–1.00
Depression 5.48 .02 1.14* 1.02–1.28
Negative life events 0.20 .66 1.03 0.92–1.15
Positive parenting 0.12 .73 1.01 0.96–1.06
Easy temperament 15.57 .00 0.46* 0.31–.68

Cognitive ability 1.10 .29 1.02 0.99–1.01
DV frequency 2.92 .09 0.94 0.88–1.01
DV duration 1.37 .24 1.46 0.77–2.74
Note. LR v2(9, n = 113) = 12.93, p = .11; Negelkerke R2 = .46;
reference group: resilient. OR = odds ratio; CI = confidence
interval; DV = domestic violence.
*p < .05.
(PCFA; von Eye, 2002) was used. PCFA is a cate-
gorical data analysis technique that identifies types
and antitypes, which indicate a relation between a
specific configuration of predictors and the criterion
(von Eye & Bogat, 2005). Types are those configura-
tions that occur more often than expected by
chance; antitypes are those that occur less often
than expected by chance. The base model for PCFA
is saturated both within the predictors and the
criterion variables; thus, the first- and second-order
autocorrelations between repeated measures (e.g.,
DV at ages 2, 3, and 4) are accounted for in the
analysis.
DV status at ages 2, 3, and 4 was used to
create predictor configurations (1 = no exposure,
2 = DV exposure); total adaptation was used as
the criterion (1 = positive across all of the time peri-
ods, 2 = negative at any time period). A 2 (DV at
age 2) · 2 (DV at age 3) · 2 (DV at age 4) · 2
(adaptation) cross-classification yielded 16 differ-

ent configurations; for example, the configuration
2221 describes a child who was exposed to DV
during all three time periods and maintained
positive adaptation. The Lehmacher Test with
Bonferroni correction was used, which is
appropriate for product-multinomial sampling.
Deviations from the model (types or antitypes)
were significant if p < .003. Power to detect
medium effect sizes was adequate (.88).
The base model was not a good fit for the pat-
tern of cell frequencies, LR v2(7, N = 190) = 23.23,
p = .00; that is, the results cannot be accurately
explained by the main effects or associations
among the predictors; thus, types and ⁄ or antitypes
are expected to emerge. Results indicated two
types (1111 and 2222) and two antitypes (1112 and
2221; see Table 5). The first type, 1111, fo = 63,
fe = 50.66, p = .00, represents children who were
not exposed to violence at any time period and
who exhibit positive adaptation. Its reciprocal anti-
type, 1112, fo = 14, fe = 26.34, p = .00, portrays chil-
dren who were never exposed to violence and
developed negative adaptation. The second type,
2222, fo = 19, fe = 11.97, p = .00, represents children
who were exposed to DV at all time periods and
display negative adaptation, and its reciprocal an-
titype, 2221, fo = 16, fe = 23.03, p = .00, describes
children who were continuously exposed to DV
and maintained resilience. Taken together, these
configurations indicate that chronic DV exposure
predicts the development of internalizing or exter-
nalizing problems. As expected, children who
were never exposed to DV are more likely to dis-
play positive behavioral outcomes. However, no

other specific patterns of DV exposure (e.g., early
exposure) showed specific associations with posi-
tive or negative behavioral and emotional out-
comes.
To identify characteristic configurations of pro-
tective factors, risk factors, and DV exposure that
are associated with resilience, a main effects confi-
gural frequency analysis (CFA) model was tested
among the DV-exposed participants (n = 113). CFA
also identifies types and antitypes among variables,
but the variables are not specified as predictors and
criteria as in PCFA (von Eye, 2002). A first-order
CFA base model assumes that the variables are not
associated among themselves, and it accounts only
for their individual main effects. Significant devia-
tions from the model (types or antitypes) are
obtained based on the comparison of observed and
estimated frequencies and indicate second-order
interactions among the variables.
Only the predictors that achieved significance in
previous models were included in this analysis.
Four categorical variables were included: maternal
depression (1 = absent, 2 = present), easy tempera-
ment (1 = low, 2 = high), DV duration (one to three
time periods), and adaptation (1 = positive, 2 = neg-
ative). These variables were cross-classified to
obtain 24 patterns that represented children’s
profile of risk ⁄ protective factors, duration of DV
Table 5
Prediction CFA: DV at Ages 2, 3, and 4, Predicting Adaptation
Predictors Criteria Prediction CFA

DV
2
DV
3
DV
4 Adaptation foijkl feijkl zijkl pijkl
N N N + 63 50.66 3.83 T .000
N N N ) 14 26.34 )3.83 A .000
N N Y + 13 10.53 1.36 .087
N N Y ) 3 5.47 )1.36 .087
N Y N + 6 5.92 0.06 .477
N Y N ) 3 3.08 )0.06 .477
N Y Y + 3 3.95 )0.83 .204
N Y Y ) 3 2.05 0.83 .204
Y N N + 11 15.13 )1.93 .027
Y N N ) 12 7.87 1.93 .027
Y N Y + 9 9.87 )0.49 .312
Y N Y ) 6 5.13 0.49 .312
Y Y N + 4 5.92 )1.38 .084
Y Y N ) 5 3.08 1.38 .084
Y Y Y + 16 23.03 )2.76 A .003
Y Y Y ) 19 11.97 2.76 T .003
Note. LR v2(7, N = 190) = 23.226, p = .002; Lehmacher test
with
Bonferroni-adjusted p = .003; fo = observed frequency; fe =

expected frequency; T = Type; A = Antitype.
exposure, and adaptation. For example, the pattern
1111 represents children whose mothers are not
depressed, who show low levels of easy tempera-
ment, who experienced DV at one time period,
and who exhibit positive adaptation. The Lehm-
acher test with Bonferroni correction was used to
protect from Type I errors (p < .002). Because of
the large number of configurations, this analysis’
power estimate (.43) was lower than desirable;
thus, results can be considered a conservative
estimate of the possible associations between the
variables. Accordingly, types and antitypes that
constitute smaller deviations from the main
effects model might not have been identified as
significant.
The main effects model was not a good fit for the
pattern of cell frequencies, LR v2(18, n = 113) =
57.55, p = .00, which indicates local associations
among the variables. Three types emerged: 1211,
1221, and 2132 (Table 6). The first configuration
1211, fo = 15, fe = 7.44, p = .00, describes a group of
resilient children whose mothers are not depressed,
who have easy temperaments, and who were
exposed to DV only during one time period. The
second configuration, 1221, fo = 10, fe = 4.65,
p = .00, describes a similar group of children who
experienced DV at two time periods. Taken
together, these two types indicate that absence of

maternal depression and presence of child easy
temperament are associated with resilience, but
only among children with one or two time periods
of DV exposure. The last configuration, 2132, fo = 9,
fe = 2.65, p = .00, describes the group of nonresilient
children whose mothers report high levels of
depression, display difficult temperaments, and
were exposed to DV during three time periods. This
pattern suggests that chronic DV in the household
is associated with maternal depression, more diffi-
cult child temperament, and negative adaptation.
Discussion
The present study explored resilience among
DV-exposed young children. The study identified a
group of DV-exposed children who maintained
Table 6
CFA With DV-Exposed-Only Children: Depression,
Temperament, DV Duration, and Adaptation
Cell index CFA
Depression Temperament Duration Adaptation foijkl feijkl zijkl
pijkl
N ) 1 + 13 11.67 .52 .303
N ) 1 ) 7 9.60 1.07 .142
N ) 2 + 5 7.29 1.06 .145
N ) 2 ) 6 6.00 .00 .500
N ) 3 + 3 8.51 2.40 .008
N ) 3 ) 10 7.00 1.39 .082
N + 1 + 15 7.44 3.40 T .000

N + 1 ) 4 6.12 1.02 .154
N + 2 + 10 4.65 2.89 T .002
N + 2 ) 3 3.83 .48 .315
N + 3 + 6 5.43 .29 .385
N + 3 ) 0 4.46 2.44 .007
Y ) 1 + 2 4.41 1.33 .093
Y ) 1 ) 6 3.63 1.41 .080
Y ) 2 + 0 2.76 1.84 .033
Y ) 2 ) 3 2.27 .53 .300
Y ) 3 + 5 3.22 1.12 .132
Y ) 3 ) 9 2.65 4.31 T .000
Y + 1 + 0 2.81 1.85 .032
Y + 1 ) 1 2.31 .94 .173
Y + 2 + 1 1.76 .62 .269
Y + 2 ) 2 1.45 .50 .312
Y + 3 + 2 2.05 .04 .485
Y + 3 ) 0 1.69 1.40 .082
Note. LR v2(18, n = 113) = 57.554, p = .000; Lehmacher test
with Bonferroni-adjusted p = .002. CFA = confirmatory factor
analysis;
DV = domestic violence; fo = observed frequency; fe =
expected frequency; T = type.
positive adaptation throughout ages 2–4. Fifty-four
percent of DV-exposed children in this community
sample were classified as resilient, which suggests

that positive adaptation in the face of adversity is
common and embedded in the processes of normal
development (Masten, 2001). Results are consistent
with previous studies with DV-exposed shelter-
residing children (Grych et al., 2000; Hughes &
Luke, 1998). However, DV exposure confers
an almost fourfold increase (OR = 3.7) in the
likelihood of internalizing or externalizing prob-
lems. Similar results have been reported in previ-
ous studies (e.g., Sternberg et al., 2006).
Examination of duration, frequency, and trajecto-
ries of DV exposure as predictors of children’s
behavioral ⁄ emotional outcomes provided mixed
results. One-unit increases in DV duration were not
associated with higher likelihood of internalizing
and externalizing symptoms, as indicated by the
odds-ratio analysis and the binary logistic regres-
sion results. Similarly, frequency of DV exposure
did not predict resilience, indicating that the main-
tenance of positive adaptation is not a direct result
of exposure to lower levels of adversity. However,
log-linear modeling techniques and person-
centered analyses (CFA) suggest a complex relation
between DV duration and resilience: Prolonged
exposure prevented the development of positive
adaptation rather than directly increasing the likeli-
hood of negative outcomes. That is, the number of
positively adapted children decreased as the num-
ber of time periods of exposure increased, but
increases in DV duration were not associated with
greater numbers of negatively adapted children.
Findings underscore the heterogeneity of outcomes
displayed by DV-exposed children and the impor-
tance of using person oriented methods; a main
effects model, which aggregates all DV-exposed

children in the same group, did not provide an
accurate explanation of the relation between
duration of exposure and children’s adaptation.
Additionally, exploration of DV trajectories as
predictors of resilience revealed that constant expo-
sure to DV predicted the development of internaliz-
ing or externalizing problems, whereas no specific
configuration of exposure (e.g., single exposure,
early exposure) was associated with resilience.
Findings suggest that the experience of those chil-
dren who are continuously under stress is qualita-
tively different from that of children exposed to
intermittent DV. Children who experience intermit-
tent DV exposure might benefit from periods of less
stress and of relatively higher quality family func-
tioning. As pointed out by previous research with
high-risk populations, when children face continu-
ous and severe environmental stressors, it is
unlikely that they will be able to sustain resilient
adaptation over time (Luthar & Zelazo, 2003).
Children were only assessed during the early
childhood period, and results should not be
generalized to middle childhood or adolescence.
Future research should compare the effects of
exposure at these different developmental periods
to determine whether there are potential
discontinuities in children’s adaptation.
Findings identified specific individual and fam-
ily factors that predicted children’s group status
(resilient, nonresilient, competent, or vulnerable).
The main effects model, which included income,
race, positive parenting, child easy temperament,
child cognitive ability, maternal depression, and

stressful life events, was a good predictor of chil-
dren’s group status. The combination of all predic-
tors provided a better fit for the data than models
that only included an isolated variable, underscor-
ing the multiply-determined nature of children’s
behavior. Overall, resilient children had more pro-
tective factors and lower levels of risk as compared
to their nonresilient peers; they differed from com-
petent nonexposed children only in their higher
levels of stressful life events. The similarity
between both groups of positively adapted children
is consistent with previous findings from longitudi-
nal, person-oriented research (e.g., Masten et al.,
1999). Interestingly, resilient children were exposed
to lower levels of maternal depression and had eas-
ier temperaments as compared to vulnerable chil-
dren, which suggests that the vulnerable children
were under considerable amounts of stress and had
few resources to manage their environments,
despite not being exposed to DV. Consistent with
previous research (e.g., Masten et al., 1999), only a
small percentage of nonexposed children were clas-
sified as vulnerable.
Maternal depression and child’s easy tempera-
ment emerged as significant predictors of resilience.
These findings are consistent with previous
research with other high-risk populations (e.g.,
Tschann et al., 1996), including DV-exposed chil-
dren (Hughes & Luke, 1998). Mothers with good
mental health are more likely to model appropriate
responses to stressful events and help their children
achieve healthy emotion regulation. On the other
hand, depressed mothers are more likely to provide
a role model of dysregulated responses to stress.
DV-exposed children with easy temperaments are

also more likely to display positive adaptation, as
their low reactivity, high adaptability, and positive
mood might promote the development of self-
regulatory competence (Olson et al., 2002) and elicit
positive responses from their caregivers and other
adults (Rutter & Quinton, 1984).
Surprisingly, positive parenting, child cognitive
ability, stressful life events, income, and race did
not significantly predict children’s adaptation. Pre-
vious research has shown that parental warmth
and support predict positive adaptation (e.g., Katz
& Gottman, 1997). However, the effects of positive
parenting might have less impact in a chaotic envi-
ronment, such as that of DV households, which
may require stricter parenting to foster competence
(see Baldwin, Baldwin, & Cole, 1990; Levendosky &
Graham-Bermann, 2000). Measurement issues
might also account for some of the discrepancies
with previous studies. The present study used self-
report measures, and a social desirability bias
might have influenced maternal reports. Addition-
ally, cognitive ability was not significantly associ-
ated with resilience, which is inconsistent with
some previous findings (e.g., Tiet et al., 1998).
Inconsistencies with previous results might be asso-
ciated with measurement differences, as the current
research used the PPVT–III, which is strongly
dependent on verbal cognitive ability.
In this research, exposure to stressful life events

did not discriminate between resilient and nonresil-
ient children; however, DV-exposed children (both
resilient and nonresilient) had more stressful life
events than did nonexposed children (both compe-
tent and vulnerable). The association between DV
exposure and other stressful life events has been
previously reported (Eby, 2004), reflecting the dis-
organized environments faced by abused women
and their children. Additionally, the same pattern
(worse outcomes for DV-exposed children) was
also observed for positive parenting and cognitive
ability, although differences did not achieve statisti-
cal significance. This pattern is consistent with pre-
vious findings on abused women’s parenting (e.g.,
Levendosky & Graham-Bermann, 2000) and DV-
exposed children’s verbal cognitive ability (e.g.,
Huth-Bocks et al., 2001). Results suggest that these
resources might be reduced by DV exposure, even
within the group of children that achieve positive
behavioral adaptation.
Racial background was not a significant predictor
of resilience. However, in this research children
were classified as White or non-White, which might
have obscured the influence of belonging to a
particular racial group (i.e., Black, Latino, Asian
American, Native American, and biracial children
were all aggregated in the non-White group).
Moreover, although race showed nonsignificant
main effects in the present study, its moderating
effects on other protective and risk factors require
further exploration.
Consistent with contemporary conceptualizations
of development and resilience (Masten, 2001),

results suggest that resilience is associated with
specific configurations of adversity (DV exposure),
protective, and risk factors. Among DV-exposed
children, the combination of child easy tempera-
ment and absence of maternal depression was asso-
ciated with positive outcomes after one or two time
periods of exposure. The association between easy
temperament and absence of maternal depression
reflects a competent mother–child dyad in which
the young child effectively obtains what she or he
needs from a responsive mother and is protected
against the effects of intermittent DV. Conversely, a
distinguishable group exposed to cumulative
adversity was identified. More children than
expected by chance exhibited co-occurring maternal
depression, negative temperament, chronic DV, and
negative behavioral adaptation. This configuration
suggests that chronic DV is associated with other
risk factors at the individual and family levels, and
the interaction of chronic adversity and impover-
ished resources disrupts the patterns of normal
adaptation.
There are some limitations to this study. First, all
predictors were assessed through maternal reports,
except for child’s cognitive ability. Although there
is some evidence that depressed mothers do not
consistently overreport their children’s behavioral
problems (Richters, 1992), results should be inter-
preted with caution because maternal reports might
have been influenced by maternal characteristics or
social desirability biases. Unfortunately, because of
the young age of the child participants, it would
have been difficult and unreliable to obtain
their own reports of DV exposure, environmental
characteristics, or behavior ⁄ well-being. Future

research would benefit from a multi-informant,
multimethod approach.
Additionally, despite the high retention rate of
this research, excluded participants had signifi-
cantly higher levels of depression, more frequent
DV exposure, and lower family income during
pregnancy. Therefore, results might not generalize
to women who are experiencing frequent violence
and high levels of adversity.
The definition of resilience for the present study
was based on behavioral and emotional outcomes.
Measures of positive adaptation (e.g., achieve-
ment of developmental milestones, quality of peer
relations, school achievement) would provide a
comprehensive assessment of resilience. Moreover,
all predictors were measured as continuous vari-
ables, such that high levels of a given predictor
might be considered protective (e.g., positive par-
enting), whereas low levels of the same predictor
reflect risk (e.g., harsh parenting). This approach
does not allow for identification of purely protec-
tive mechanisms and might not accurately repre-
sent the effects of variables that only exert influence
at one end of the continuum or that have nonlinear
associations with adaptation (Luthar et al., 2006).
Lastly, the sample size placed a constraint on the
statistical analyses. For example, it was not possible
to test for differences associated with the develop-

mental period in which the protection ⁄ risk
occurred or the different patterns (increasing vs.
decreasing) of exposure or resources. Similarly,
testing for interactions between risk ⁄ protection and
specific racial backgrounds was not possible within
the current sample. Additionally, this research was
not able to examine trajectories of behavioral out-
comes and the effects of protective factors on
changes (e.g., continuity or discontinuity) in adap-
tation. Growth curve modeling techniques or
group-based semiparametric models are especially
suited to address these important questions. Longi-
tudinal studies with large samples of DV-exposed
children are needed.
In summary, the present article contributes to
the current understanding of the effects of DV
exposure on children’s development as well as the
characteristics of young children who maintain
resilience in the context of intimate partner violence
directed toward their mothers. Findings indicate
that resilience in the face of DV exposure does
occur and is associated with a configuration of co-
occurring protection and lower risk, particularly
when DV exposure is limited. Future research
should address the stability of DV-exposed chil-
dren’s positive adaptation as well as the role of
these individual and family characteristics as pro-
tective or risk factors at different developmental
stages.
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