Formal parameter Actual Parameter Ponter Call by Value Call by reference Call by Address

1. Programming in C –Call By
Prof. A. Syed Mustafa, HKBK College of Engineering
Program to find area of a circle using #define.
#include<stdio.h>
#define PI 3.1412
int main()
{
int radius; float area;
printf("Enter the radius: ");
scanf("%d", &radius);
area=PI*radius*radius;
printf("Area=%.2f",area);
return 0;
}
Use of #if, #elif, #else and #endif :
The preprocessor directives #if, #elif, #else and #endif allows to
conditionally compile a block of code based on predefined symbols.
#include<stdio.h>
#define MAX 100
void main( )
{
#if (MAX)
printf("MAX is defined");
#else
printf ("MAX is not defined");
#endif
}
Preprocessor Directive / Macros
The C preprocessor [CPP] is a macro processor that is used
automatically by the C compiler to transform programmer defined
programs before actual compilation takes place. It is called a macro
processor because it allows the user to define macros, which are short
abbreviations for longer constructs.
It instructs the compiler to do required pre-processing before the
actual compilation. All preprocessor directives begin with the #
symbol (known as pound or hash).
List of pre-processor directives:
1. #include: This is used insert a particular header from another file.
2. #define, #undef : These are used to define and un-define
conditional compilation symbols.
3. #if, #elif, #else, #endif : These are used to conditionally skip
sections of source code.
Example:
#include “demo.h”
 tells CPP to get demo.h from the local directory and add the
content to the current source file.
#define PI 3.1412 /* defines symbolic constant */
 This directive tells the CPP to replace symbolic constant pi
with 3.1412.
#define SIZE 5 /* SIZE will be replaced with 5 */

2. Programming in C –Call By
Prof. A. Syed Mustafa, HKBK College of Engineering
MEMORY ALLOCATION FUNCTIONS
1. Static Memory Allocation:
Memory space allocated from stack at compile time for variables
declared in the program is fixed, it cannot be altered during
execution-time. This is called static memory allocation.
Example: int a[5]; float d;
2. Dynamic Memory Allocation
It is the process of allocating memory-space during execution-time
i.e. run time from Heap. If there is an unpredictable storage
requirement, then the dynamic allocation technique is used.
This allocation technique uses predefined functions to allocate and
release memory for data during execution-time.
There are 4 library functions for dynamic memory allocation:
malloc( ), calloc( ), free( ), realloc( )
These library functions are defined under "stdlib.h"
1. malloc( ) -memory allocation
This function is used to allocate the required memory-space
during execution-time.
The syntax is shown below:
data_type *p;
p=(data_type*)malloc(size);
Here p is pointer variable.
data_type can be int, float or char. size is number of bytes to be
allocated.If memory is successfully allocated, then address of the first
byte of allocated space is returned. If memory allocation fails, then
NULL is returned.
For ex: int *ptr;
ptr=(int*)malloc(100*sizeof(int));
The above code will allocate 200 bytes assuming sizeof(int)=2 bytes.
2. calloc( ) - contiguous allocation
This function is used to allocate the required memory-size during
execution-time and at the same time, automatically initialize
memory with 0's.
syntax :
data_type *p;
p=(data_type*)calloc(n,size);
Ex:
p=(int*)calloc(25,sizeof(int));
3. free( )
Dynamically allocated memory with either calloc( ) or malloc( ) can
be deallocated using free( ) explicitly to release space.
syntax:
free(ptr);
4. realloc() -reallocation
If the previously allocated memory is insufficient or more than
sufficient. Then, we can change memory-size previously allocated
using realloc().
The syntax is shown below:
ptr=(data_type*)realloc(ptr,newsize);
void main( )
{ int i;
int *a= (int *)malloc(10);
for(i=0;i<5;i++)
*(a+i)=i+10;
for(i=0;i<5;i++)
printf(“%dt”,*(a+i)10;
}
Output: 10 11 12 13 14

3. Programming in C –Call By
Prof. A. Syed Mustafa, HKBK College of Engineering
Pointers
A Pointer is just an address of the data stored in memory.
A pointer is a variable whose value is the address of
another variable, i.e., direct address of the memory
location.
Syntax: <variable_type> *<name>=&variable; eg:- int *a=&b;
‘*’ used to declare a pointer variable and also used to retrieve the value
from the pointed memory location. ‘*’ is also called as derefence operator.
#include <stdio.h>
void main ()
{
int a = 20; /* actual variable declaration */
int *ip; /* pointer variable declaration */
ip = &a; /* store address of var in pointer variable*/
printf("Address of variable a is: %xn", &a );
/* address stored in pointer variable */
printf("Address stored in variable ip is: %xn", ip );
/* access the value using the pointer */
printf("Value of *ip variable: %dn", *ip );
}
Output:
Address of variable a is: bffd8b3c
Address stored in variable ip is: bffd8b3c
Value of *ip variable: 20
Actual Parameter
 The parameter’s value (or arguments) we provide while calling
a function is known as actual arguments.
 Parameter Written In Function Call is Called “Actual Parameter”
 Actual parameters are parameters as they appear in function calls.
 The actual value that is passed into the function by a caller.
Formal Parameter
 Formal parameters are parameters as they appear in function
declarations.
 the identifier used in a method to stand for the value that is passed
into the function by a caller.
 Parameter Written In Function Definition is Called “Formal Parameter”
 While declaring a function, the arguments list of parameters we
specify are known as formal parameters.
Example

4. Programming in C –Call By
Prof. A. Syed Mustafa, HKBK College of Engineering
CALL BY ADDRESS
The call to the function passes variable’s
address to the called function. The actual
arguments are not copied to the formal
arguments, the addresses of actual
arguments (or parameters) are passed to
the formal parameters. Hence any
operation performed by function on
formal arguments / parameters affects
actual parameters.
void swap(int *x, int *y)
{ int t=*x; *x=*y; *y=t;
}
void main( ) {
int a=5, b=10 ;
printf("Before swap: a=%d,b=%d",a,b);
swap(&a,&b); /*calling swap function*/
printf("After swap: a= %d,b=%d",a,b);
}
Output:
Before swap: a=5,b=10
After swap: a=10,b=5
Because variable declared ‘a’, ‘b’ in
main() is different from variable ‘x’, ’y’ in
swap(). Only variable names are
different but both a and x, b and y point
to the same memory address locations
respectively.
CALL BY REFERENCE
The call to the function passes base address to
the called function. The actual arguments are
not copied to the formal arguments, only
referencing is made. Hence any operation
performed by function on formal arguments /
parameters affects actual parameters.
void change(int b[ ])
{
b[0]=10; b[1]=20; b[2]=30;
}
void main( )
{
int a[3]={ 5, 15, 25 } ;
printf("BeforeChange:%d,%d,%d",a[0],a[1],a[2]);
change(a); /*calling swap function*/
printf("AfterChange:%d,%d,%d",a[0],a[1],a[2]);
}
Output:
BeforeChange: 5,15,25
AfterChange: 10,20,30
Because array variable declared ‘b’ in change() is
referencing/ pointing to array variable ‘a’ in
main(). Only variable name is different but
both are pointing / referencing to same
memory address locations.
CALL BY VALUE
The call to the function passes either the values
or the normal variables to the called function.
The actual arguments are copied to the formal
arguments, hence any operation performed by
function on arguments doesn’t affect actual
parameters.
void swap(int a, int b)
{
int t=a; a=b; b=t;
}
void main( )
{
int a=5, b=10 ;
printf("Before swap: a=%d,b=%d",a,b);
swap(a,b); /*calling swap function*/
printf("After swap: a= %d,b=%d",a,b);
}
Output:
Before swap: a=5,b=10
After swap: a=5,b=10
Because variable declared ‘a’, ‘b’ in main() is
different from variable ‘a’, ’b’ in swap(). Only
variable names are similar but their memory
address are different and stored in different
memory locations.

5. Programming in C –Call By
Prof. A. Syed Mustafa, HKBK College of Engineering
STACKS
• A stack is a special type of data structure where elements are inserted from one end and elements are deleted from the same
end.
• Using this approach, the Last element Inserted is the First element to be deleted Out, and hence, stack is also called LIFO data
structure.
• The various operations performed on stack:
Insert: An element is inserted from top end. Insertion operation is called push operation. Delete: An element is
deleted from top end. Deletion operation is called pop operation. Overflow: Check whether the stack is full or not.
Underflow: Check whether the stack is empty or not.
• This can be pictorially represented as shown below:
APPLICATIONS OF STACK
1) Conversion of expressions: The compiler converts the infix expressions into postfix expressions using stack.
2) Evaluation of expression: An arithmetic expression represented in the form of either postfix or prefix can be easily evaluated
using stack.
3) Recursion: A function which calls itself is called recursive function.
4) Other applications: To find whether the string is a palindrome, to check whether a given expression is valid or not.

6. Programming in C –Call By
Prof. A. Syed Mustafa, HKBK College of Engineering
PRIMITIVE AND NON-PRIMITIVE DATA TYPES
Data type specifies the type of data stored in a
variable. The data type can be classified into two
types: 1) Primitive data type and 2)Non-Primitive data
type
Primitive Data Type
• The primitive data types are the basic data types
that are available in most of the programming
languages.
• The primitive data types are used to represent single
values.
Integer: This is used to represent a number without
decimal point. Eg: int a=12;
Float: This is used to represent a number with
decimal point. Eg: float a=45.1; double b=67.3;
Character: This is used to represent single character
Eg: char ch=‘C’; char ch1= ‘a’;
Non Primitive Data Type
• The data types that are derived from primary data types
are known as non-Primitive data types.
• These datatypes are used to store group of values.
• The non-primitive data types are
Arrays, Structure
Stacks, Linked list
Queue, Binary tree