This document is a physics project submitted by Shlok Patel on the topic of solar energy and photovoltaics. It begins with an acknowledgements section thanking those who helped with the project. The body of the project then discusses solar energy and how it can be harnessed using technologies like solar heating, photovoltaics, and solar architecture. It provides details on photovoltaics, solar cells, environmental impacts, and various applications of solar PV systems including rooftop installations, rural electrification, power stations, and more.

1. PHYSICS PROJECT
Submitted by:- SHLOK PATEL
Class:- XII- SCI A
Roll No. :- 25
School :- GAJERA INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL,
KATARGAM, SURAT
2015-16
SOLAR ENERGY AND
PHOTOVOLTAICS
APPLICATIONS OF PV
SUBMITTED TO:- MR. ARSHID BHATT

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This project consumed huge amount of work, research and
dedication. Still, implementation would not have been
possible if I did not have a support of many individuals.
Therefore I would like to extend our sincere gratitude to all of
them.
I would like to express my special thanks of gratitude to my
teacher Arshid sir as well as our principal Mr. J Thomas
Sir who gave me the golden opportunity to do this wonderful
project on the topic Solar energy and photovoltaics which
also helped me in doing a lot of Research and I came to know
about so many new things I am really thankful to them.
At last I would also like to thank my parents and friends who
helped me a lot in finalizing this project within the limited
time frame.

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INDEX
Sr No. Topic Page No.
1. Solar energy 03
2. Energy from the sun 04
3. Photovoltaics 05
4. Solar cells 08
5. Environmental impacts of photovoltaic technologies 11
6. Solar PV systems 12
7. Rooftop and building integrated systems 12
8. Concentrator photovoltaics 14
9. Photovoltaic thermal hybrid solar collector 14
10. Power stations 14
11. Rural electrification 15
12. Standalone systems 16
13. Floatovoltaics 17
14. In transport 17
15. Telecommunication and signaling 18
16. Spacecraftapplications 19
17. Advantages 19
18. Bibiloraphy 21
19. Refrences 21

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Solar energy
Solar energy is radiant light and heat from the sun harnessed using
a range of ever-evolving technologies such as solar heating,
photovoltaics, solar thermal energy, solar architecture and artificial
photosynthesis.
It is an important source of renewable energy and its technologies
are broadly characterized as either passive solar or active solar
depending on the way they capture and distribute solar energy or
convert it into solar power. Active solar techniques include the use
of photovoltaic systems, concentrated solar power and solar
waterheating to harness the energy. Passive solar techniques
include orienting a building to the Sun, selecting materials with
favorable thermal mass or light dispersing properties, and designing
spacesthat naturally circulateair.
Outstanding solar potential compared to all other energy sources

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Energy from the Sun
The Earth receives 174,000 terawatts (TW) of incoming solar
radiation (isolation) at the upper atmosphere. Approximately 30%
is reflected back to space while the rest is absorbed by clouds,
oceans and land masses. The spectrum of solar light at the Earth's
surface is mostly spread across the visible and near-infrared ranges
with a small part in the near-ultraviolet. Most people around the
world live in areas with isolation levels of 150 to 300 watt per
square meter or 3.5 to 7.0 kWh/m2 perday.
Earth's land surface, oceans and atmosphere absorb solar radiation,
and this raises their temperature. Warm air containing evaporated
water from the oceans rises, causing atmospheric
circulation or convection. When the air reaches a high altitude,
where the temperature is low, water vapor condenses into clouds,
which rain onto the Earth's surface, completing the water cycle.
The latent heat of water condensation amplifies convection,
producing atmospheric phenomena such as wind, cyclones and anti-
cyclones. Sunlight absorbed by the oceans and land masses keeps
the surface at an average temperature of
14 °C. By photosynthesis green plants convert solar energy
into chemical energy, which produces food, wood and
the biomassfrom which fossil fuels are derived.

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About half the incoming solar energy reaches the Earth's surface.
Average isolation. The theoretical area of the small black dots is sufficient to
supply the world's total energy needs of 18 TW with solar power.
Photovoltaics
Photovoltaics (PV) is the name of a method of converting solar
energy into direct current electricity using semiconducting
materials that exhibit the photovoltaic effect, a phenomenon
commonly studied in physics, photochemistry and electrochemistry.
A photovoltaic system employs solar panels composed of a number
of solar cells to supply usable solar power. The process is both
physical and chemical in nature, as the first step involves

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the photoelectric effect from which a
second electrochemical process take place involving crystallized
atoms being ionized in a series, generating an electric
current. Power generation from solar PV has long been seen as a
clean sustainable energy technology which draws upon the planet’s
most plentiful and widely distributed renewable energy source – the
sun. The direct conversion of sunlight to electricity occurs without
any moving parts or environmental emissions during operation. It is
well proven, as photovoltaic systems have now been used for fifty
years in specialized applications, and grid-connected PV
systems have been in use for over twenty years. They were first
mass-produced in the year 2000, when German environmentalists
including Euro solar succeeded in obtaining government support for
the 100,000 roofs program.
Driven by advances in technology and increases in manufacturing
scale and sophistication, the cost of photovoltaics has declined
steadily since the first solar cells were manufactured, and
the levelised cost of electricity from PV is competitive with
conventional electricity sources in an expanding list of geographic
regions. Net metering and financial incentives, such as
preferential feed-in tariffs for solar-generated electricity, have
supported solar PV installations in many countries. With current
technology, photovoltaics recoups the energy needed to
manufacture them in 1.5 to 2.5 years in Southern and Northern
Europe, respectively.
Solar PV is now, after hydro and wind power, the third most
important renewable energy source in terms of globally installed
capacity. More than 100 countries use solar PV. Installations may

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be ground-mounted (and sometimes integrated with farming and
grazing) or built into the roof or walls of a building (either building-
integratedphotovoltaicsor simply rooftop).
In 2014, worldwide installed PV capacity increased to at least
177 gigawatts (GW), sufficient to supply 1 percent of
global electricity demands. Due to the exponential growth of
photovoltaics, installations are rapidly approaching the 200 GW
mark – about 40 times the installed capacity of 2006. China,
followed by Japan and the United States, is the fastest growing
market, while Germany remains the world's largest producer, with
solar contributing about 7 percent to its annual domestic electricity
consumption.
The Solar Settlement, a sustainable housing community project in Freiburg,
Germany.

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Photovoltaic SUDI shade is an autonomous and mobile station in France that
provides energy for electric vehicles using solar energy.
Solar panels on the International Space Station
Solar cells
Photovoltaics are best known as a method for generating electric
power by using solar cells to convert energy from the sun into a
flow of electrons. The photovoltaic effect refers to photons of light
exciting electrons into a higher state of energy, allowing them to act
as charge carriers for an electric current. The photovoltaic effect
was first observed by Alexandre-Edmond Becquerel in 1839. The
term photovoltaic denotes the unbiased operating mode of
a photodiode in which current through the device is entirely due to

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the transduced light energy. Virtually all photovoltaic devices are
some type of photodiode.
Solar cells produce direct current electricity from sun light which
can be used to power equipment or to recharge a battery. The first
practical application of photovoltaics was to power orbiting
satellites and other spacecraft, but today the majority
of photovoltaic modules are used for grid connected power
generation. In this case an inverter is required to convert the DC to
AC. There is a smaller market for off-grid power for remote
dwellings, boats, recreational vehicles, electric cars, roadside
emergency telephones, remote sensing, and cathodic
protectionof pipelines.
Photovoltaic power generation employs solar panels composed of a
number of solar cells containing a photovoltaic material. Materials
presently used for photovoltaics include monocrystalline
silicon, polycrystalline silicon, amorphous silicon, cadmium
telluride, and copper indium gallium selenide/sulfide. Copper solar
cables connect modules (module cable), arrays (array cable), and
sub-fields. Because of the growing demand for renewable
energy sources, the manufacturing of solar cells and photovoltaic
arrays has advancedconsiderablyin recentyears.
Solar photovoltaics power generation has long been seen as a clean
energy technology which draws upon the planet’s most plentiful
and widely distributed renewable energy source – the sun. The
technology is “inherently elegant” in that the direct conversion of
sunlight to electricity occurs without any moving parts or
environmental emissions during operation. It is well proven, as
photovoltaic systems have now been used for fifty years in

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specialised applications, and grid-connected systems have been in
use for over twenty years.
Cells require protection from the environment and are usually
packaged tightly behind a glass sheet. When more power is required
than a single cell can deliver, cells are electrically connected
together to form photovoltaic modules, or solar panels. A single
module is enough to power an emergency telephone, but for a
house or a power plant the modules must be arranged in multiples
as arrays.
Photovoltaic power capacity is measured as maximum power
output under standardized test conditions (STC) in "Wp" (Watts
peak).The actual power output at a particular point in time may be
less than or greater than this standardized, or "rated," value,
depending on geographical location, time of day, weather
conditions, and other factors. Solar photovoltaic array capacity
factors are typically under 25%, which is lower than many other
industrialsources of electricity.
.Solar cells generate electricity directly from sunlight

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Environmental impacts of photovoltaic
technologies
PV technologies have shown significant progress lately in terms of
annual production capacity and life cycle environmental
performances, which necessitates the assessment of environmental
impacts of such technologies. The different PV technologies show
slight variations in the emissions when compared the emissions
from conventional energy technologies that replaced by the latest
PV technologies. With the up scaling of thin film module
production for meeting future energy needs, there is a growing need
for conducting the life-cycle assessment (LCA) of such
technologies to analyze the future environmental impacts resulting
from such technologies. The manufacturing processes of solar cell
involve the emissions of several toxic, flammable and explosive
chemicals. Lately, in the field of photovoltaic research, there has
been a continual rise in research and development efforts focused
on reducing mass during cell manufacture. Such efforts have
resulted in reducing the thickness of solar cells and thus the next
generation solar cells are becoming thinner and eventually risks of
exposure are reduced nevertheless, all chemicals must be carefully
handled to ensure minimal human and environmental contact. The
large scale deployment of such renewable energy technologies
could result in potential negative environmental implications. These
potential problems can pose serious challenges in promulgating
such technologiesto a broad segmentof consumers.
There are studies which have shown that the PV environmental
impacts come mainly from the production of the cells; operation

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and maintenance requirements and associated impacts are relatively
small. There has been a significant progress in the published
literature on LCA of thin film PV technologies. Research groups
are applying life-cycle assessment approach to emerging PV
technologies in order to facilitate a robust comparison of
emerging next generation thin film photovoltaic technologies
competingwith eachother in the photovoltaicmarket.
Applications
Solar PV systems
A photovoltaic system, or solar PV system is a power system
designed to supply usable solar power by means of photovoltaics. It
consists of an arrangement of several components, including solar
panels to absorb and directly convert sunlight into electricity, a
solar inverter to change the electric current from DC to AC, as well
as mounting, cabling and other electrical accessories. PV systems
range from small, roof-top mounted or building integrated system
with capacities from a few to several tens of kilowatts, to large
utility-scale power stations of hundreds of megawatts. Nowadays,
most PV systems are grid-connected, while stand-alone systems
only accountfor a small portion of the market.
 Rooftop and building integrated systems
Photovoltaic arrays are often associated with buildings: either
integrated into them, mounted on them or mounted nearby on the
ground. Rooftop PV systems are most often retrofitted into existing
buildings, usually mounted on top of the existing roof structure or

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on the existing walls. Alternatively, an array can be located
separately from the building but connected by cable to supply
power for the building. Building-integrated photovoltaics (BIPV)
are increasingly incorporated into the roof or walls of new domestic
and industrial buildings as a principal or ancillary source of
electrical power. Roof tiles with integrated PV cells are sometimes
used as well. Provided there is an open gap in which air can
circulate, rooftop mounted solar panels can provide a passive
cooling effect on buildings during the day and also keep
accumulated heat in at night. Typically, residential rooftop systems
have small capacities of around 5–10 kW, while commercial
rooftop systems often amount to several hundreds of kilowatts.
Although rooftop systems are much smaller than ground-mounted
utility-scale power lants, they account for most of the worldwide
installed capacity.
Rooftop PV on half-timbered house
 Concentrator photovoltaics

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Concentrator photovoltaics (CPV) is a photovoltaic technology
that contrary to conventional flat-plate PV systems uses lenses
and curved mirrors to focus sunlight onto small, but highly
efficient, multi-junction (MJ) solar cells. In addition, CPV
systems often use solar trackers and sometimes a cooling system
to further increase their efficiency. Ongoing research and
development is rapidly improving their competitiveness in the
utility-scale segmentand in areas of high solar insolation.
 Photovoltaic thermal hybrid solar
collector
Photovoltaic thermal hybrid solar collector (PVT) are systems that
convert solar radiation into thermal and electrical energy. These
systems combine a solar PV cell, which converts sunlight into
electricity, with a solar thermal collector, which captures the
remaining energy and removes waste heat from the PV module. The
capture of both electricity and heat allow these devices to have
higher energy and thus be more overall energy efficient than solar
PV or solar thermalalone.
 Power stations
Many utility-scale solar farms have been constructed all over the
world. As of 2015, the 579-megawatt (MWAC) Solar Star is the
world's largest photovoltaic power station, followed by the Desert
Sunlight Solar Farm and the Topaz Solar Farm, both with a
capacity of 550 MWAC, constructed by US-company First Solar,
using CdTe modules, a thin-film PV technology. All three power
stations are located in the Californian desert. Many solar farms
around the world are integrated with agriculture and some use

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innovative solar tracking systems that follow the sun's daily path
across the sky to generate more electricity than conventional fixed-
mounted systems. There are no fuel costs or emissions during
operationof the powerstations.
Satellite image of the Topaz Solar Farm
 Rural electrification
Developing countries where many villages are often more than
five kilometers away from grid power are increasingly using
photovoltaics. In remote locations in India a rural lighting
program has been providing solar powered LED lighting to
replace kerosene lamps. The solar powered lamps were sold at
about the cost of a few months' supply of kerosene. Cuba is
working to provide solar power for areas that are off grid. More
complex applications of off-grid solar energy use include 3D
printers. RepRap 3D printers have been solar powered with
photovoltaic technology, which enables distributed
manufacturing for sustainable development. These are areas
where the social costs and benefits offer an excellent case for
going solar, though the lack of profitability has relegated such

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endeavors to humanitarian efforts. However, solar rural
electrification projects have been difficult to sustain due to
unfavorable economics, lack of technical support, and a legacy
of ulterior motivesof north-to-south technologytransfer.
 Standalone systems
Until a decade or so ago, PV was used frequently to power
calculators and novelty devices. Improvements in integrated circuits
and low power liquid crystal displays make it possible to power
such devices for several years between battery changes, making PV
use less common. In contrast, solar powered remote fixed devices
have seen increasing use recently in locations where significant
connection cost makes grid power prohibitively expensive. Such
applications include solar lamps, water pumps, parking
meters, emergency telephones, trash compactors, temporary traffic
signs, chargingstations, and remote guard posts and signals.
A solar traffic light in Beijing, China
 Floatovoltaics

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In May 2008, the Far Niente Winery in Oakville, CA pioneered the
world's first "floatovoltaic" system by installing 994 photovoltaic
solar panels onto 130 pontoons and floating them on the winery's
irrigation pond. The floating system generates about 477 kW of
peak output and when combined with an array of cells located
adjacent to the pond is able to fully offset the winery's electricity
consumption. The primary benefit of a floatovoltaic system is that it
avoids the need to sacrifice valuable land area that could be used
for another purpose. In the case of the Far Niente Winery, the
floating system saved three-quarters of an acre that would have
been required for a land-based system. That land area can instead
be used for agriculture. Another benefit of a floatovoltaic system is
that the panels are kept at a lower temperature than they would be
on land, leading to a higher efficiency of solar energy conversion.
The floating panels also reduce the amount of water lost through
evaporationand inhibit the growth of algae.
 In transport
PV has traditionally been used for electric power in space. PV is
rarely used to provide motive power in transport applications, but is
being used increasingly to provide auxiliary power in boats and
cars. Some automobiles are fitted with solar-powered air
conditioning to limit interior temperatures on hot days. A self-
contained solar vehicle would have limited power and utility, but a
solar-charged electric vehicle allows use of solar power for
transportation. Solar-powered cars, boats and airplanes have been

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demonstrated, with the most practical and likely of these
being solar cars. The Swiss solar aircraft, Solar Impulse 2, achieved
the longest non-stop solo flight in history and plan to make the first
solar-poweredaerialcircumnavigationofthe globe in 2015.
Solar Impulse, a solar aircraft
 Telecommunication and signaling
Solar PV power is ideally suited for telecommunication
applications such as local telephone exchange, radio and TV
broadcasting, microwave and other forms of electronic
communication links. This is because, in most telecommunication
application, storage batteries are already in use and the electrical
system is basically DC. In hilly and mountainous terrain, radio and
TV signals may not reach as they get blocked or reflected back due
to undulating terrain. At these locations, low power transmitters
(LPT) are installed to receive and retransmit the signal for local
population.
 Spacecraft applications

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Solar panels on spacecraft supply power to run the sensors,
active heating and cooling, and telemetry, or they power is used
for spacecraft propulsion—electric propulsion, sometimes called
solar-electric propulsion. Spacecraft operating in the inner solar
system usually rely on the use of solar panels to derive
electricity from sunlight. Solar PV cells on spacecraft was one of
the earliest applications of photovoltaics. One of the first
application of photovoltaic panels was on Earth-orbiting
satellites, starting with the silicon solar cells used on
the Vanguard 1 satellite, launched by the US in 1958.Since then,
solar power systems have been used on a wide variety of
missions. Solar power has been used on missions ranging from
the power system for the MESSENGER probe to Mercury, to as
far out in the solar system as the Juno probe to Jupiter. The
largest solar power system flown in space is the electrical system
of the International Space Station. To increase the power
generated per kilogram, typical spacecraft solar panels use high-
cost, high-efficiency, and close-packed rectangular multi-
junction solar cells made of gallium arsenide (GaAs) and other
semiconductormaterials.
Advantages
The 122 PW of sunlight reaching the Earth's surface is plentiful—
almost 10,000 times more than the 13 TW equivalent of average
power consumed in 2005 by humans. This abundance leads to the
suggestion that it will not be long before solar energy will become
the world's primary energy source. Additionally, solar electric
generation has the highest power density (global mean of
170 W/m2
)among renewableenergies.

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Solar power is pollution-free during use. Production end-wastes and
emissions are manageable using existing pollution controls. End-of-
use recycling technologies are under development and policies are
being producedthat encouragerecyclingfrom producers.
PV installations can operate for 100 years or even more with little
maintenance or intervention after their initial set-up, so after the
initial capital cost of building any solar power plant, operating
costs are extremelylow comparedto existing powertechnologies.
Grid-connected solar electricity can be used locally thus reducing
transmission/distribution losses (transmission losses in the US were
approximately7.2%in 1995).
Compared to fossil and nuclear energy sources, very little research
money has been invested in the development of solar cells, so there
is considerable room for improvement. Nevertheless,
experimental high efficiency solar cells already have efficiencies of
over 40% in case of concentrating photovoltaic cells and
efficiencies are rapidly rising while mass-production costs are
rapidly falling.
BIBILOGRAPHY

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2.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_energy
3.www.technologystudent.com/energy1/solar5.htm
4.energy.gov/eere/sunshot/photovoltaics
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