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Chapter 5: A Virtuous Republic
- 1. 1 Visions of America, A History of the United States CHAPTER A Virtuous Republic Creating a Workable Government, 1783–1789 5 1 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 2. 2 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 3. A Virtuous Republic I. Republicanism and the Politics of Virtue II. Life under the Articles of Confederation III. The Movement for Constitutional Reform IV. The Great Debate CREATING A WORKABLE GOVERNMENT, 1783–1789 3 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 4. Republicanism and the Politics of Virtue A. George Washington: The American Cincinnatus B. The Politics of Virtue: Views from the States C. Democracy Triumphant? D. Debtors versus Creditors 4 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 5. George Washington: The American Cincinnatus Why did Americans believe Washington was the modern Cincinnatus? What was the Newburgh conspiracy? 5 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 6. 6 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 7. How did change in furniture design reflect the influence of republican ideas? Why was education so important to the Founders of the American Republic? The Politics of Virtue: Views from the States 7 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 8. 8 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 9. 9 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 10. 10 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 11. 11 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 12. How did republican ideas change notions about women’s roles? Images as History WOMEN’S ROLES: TRADITION AND CHANGE 12 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 13. 13 Visions of America, A History of the United States Images as History WOMEN’S ROLES: TRADITION AND CHANGE The text that accompanied this image advised: “Keep within Compass and You shall be sure to avoid many troubles which others endure.” The woman stepping outside the compass (at bottom) faces arrest and imprisonment.
- 14. 14 Visions of America, A History of the United States Images as History WOMEN’S ROLES: TRADITION AND CHANGE The large building at the top is The College of Rhode Island (today's Brown University). The central text reads: "Let Virtue be a Guide to Thee." The central image is the Rhode Island State House.
- 15. Democracy Triumphant? Why did many supporters of republicanism fear democracy? Why did William Smith’s portrait cast him as a country gentleman rather than an urban merchant? How did the composition of the state legislatures change after the American Revolution? 15 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 16. 16 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 17. 17 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 18. Life under the Articles of Confederation A. No Taxation without Representation B. Diplomacy: Frustration and Stalemate C. Settling the Old Northwest D. Shays’s Rebellion 18 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 19. Life under the Articles of Confederation Why did the Articles of Confederation fail to give the Confederation Congress the power to tax? 19 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 20. Life under the Articles of Confederation Articles of Confederation – America’s first constitutional government in effect from 1781–1788 – Created a weak decentralized form of government that lacked the power to tax and compel state obedience to treaties it negotiated 20 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 21. 21 Visions of America, A History of the United States No Taxation without Representation
- 22. Diplomacy: Frustration and Stalemate What diplomatic frustrations hampered the new American nation? What was the theory of conquest, and how did it influence diplomatic relations with Native American peoples? 22 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 23. Diplomacy: Frustration and Stalemate Old Northwest – The region of the new nation bordering on the Great Lakes 23 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 24. 24 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 25. Settling the Old Northwest What republican features distinguish the Northwest Ordinance? 25 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 26. Settling the Old Northwest Northwest Ordinance of 1787 – One of several laws adopted by the Confederation Congress designed to provide a plan for the orderly settlement of the Northwest Territory (the area north of the Ohio River and west of Pennsylvania) – Provided a plan for self-governance – Prohibited slavery from the Northwest Territory 26 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 27. 27 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 28. Shays’s Rebellion What was Shays’s Rebellion? 28 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 29. Shays’s Rebellion Shays’s Rebellion – Uprising in western Massachusetts in which farmers organized themselves as local militia units and closed down courts to prevent their farms from being seized by creditors 29 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 30. 30 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 31. The Movement for Constitutional Reform A. The Road to Philadelphia B. Large States versus Small States C. Conflict over Slavery D. Filling out the Constitutional Design 31 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 32. 32 Visions of America, A History of the United States The Road to Philadelphia
- 33. Large States versus Small States What were the main features of the Virginia Plan? Why did small states oppose the Virginia Plan? 33 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 34. Large States versus Small States Virginia Plan – A plan framed by James Madison and introduced in the Constitution Convention by Edmund Randolph that called on delegations to abandon the government of the Articles and create a new, strong national government 34 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 35. Large States versus Small States New Jersey Plan – Proposal made by William Patterson of New Jersey as an alternative to the more nationalistic Virginia Plan that would have retained the principle of state equality in the legislature embodied in the Articles of Confederation 35 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 36. Large States versus Small States Great Compromise – Compromise plan proposed by Roger Sherman and Oliver Ellsworth of Connecticut that called for equal representation of each state in the upper house and a lower house based on population 36 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 37. 37 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 38. Conflict over Slavery How did the conflict over slavery shape the debates of the Constitutional Convention? 38 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 39. Filling out the Constitutional Design How did the electoral college strengthen the powers of the states and further the ideals of republicanism? What were the most important differences between the federal Constitution and the typical state constitutions of this period? 39 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 40. 40 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 41. The Great Debate A. Federalists versus Anti-Federalists B. Ratification C. The Creation of a Loyal Opposition 41 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 42. Federalists versus Anti-Federalists Why did Federalist and Anti-Federalist authors adopt names such as Publius and Brutus? How does The Looking Glass for 1787 portray the Anti-Federalists? 42 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 43. Federalists versus Anti-Federalists Federalists – The name adopted by the supporters of the Constitution who favored a stronger centralized government 43 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 44. Federalists versus Anti-Federalists Anti-Federalists – The name applied to opponents of the Constitution who insisted that they, not their opponents, were the true supporters of the ideal of federalism – Opposed weakening the power of the states – Feared that the Constitution yielded too much power to the new central government 44 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 45. 45 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 46. The Anti-Federalist Brutus defended the traditional idea that a free republic could survive only in a small area in which the people shared the same values, culture, and history. Why did Brutus and Publius differ about the relationship between size and republicanism? As Publius, James Madison argued that by increasing the number of factions and expanding the size of the republic, it would be less likely for any one faction to further its agenda and dominate politics. Competing Visions BRUTUS AND PUBLIUS DEBATE THE NATURE OF REPUBLICANISM 46 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 47. Ratification Why did urban artisans support the Constitution? 47 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 48. 48 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 49. 49 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 50. 50 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 51. Choices and Consequences • By the time New York’s ratification convention met, nine states had already ratified the Constitution, making it the new law of the land. • If New York failed to ratify it would be excluded from the new nation surrounding it. • Moderate Anti-Federalists, such as Melancton Smith, were key swing voters in the ratification convention. TO RATIFY OR NOT 51 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 52. Choices and Consequences Choices Regarding Ratification TO RATIFY OR NOT 52 Visions of America, A History of the United States Support the Constitution with the promise that the first Congress would amend it Support the Constitution provisionally until it was amended, but consider seceding from the Union if amendments were not made Block ratification
- 53. Choices and Consequences Decision and Consequences • Melancton Smith chose to support the Constitution with the promise of amendments. • New York ratified the Constitution and became the eleventh state in the Union. • The decision put more pressure on Rhode Island and North Carolina to ratify or become isolated. • The decision gave impetus to the move to amend the Constitution after ratification, and the First Congress enacted the Bill of Rights. TO RATIFY OR NOT Why did New York Anti-Federalists compromise on the question of amendments? 53 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 54. Choices and Consequences Continuing Controversies •Why did New York Anti-Federalists accept the Constitution and wait for amendments? TO RATIFY OR NOT 54 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 55. The Creation of a Loyal Opposition Why was there no anti-Constitution movement after ratification? 55 Visions of America, A History of the United States
Hinweis der Redaktion
- Chapter Opener: Virginia State Capitol (page 129) Text Excerpt: In his design for the Virginia State Capitol (pictured here), Jefferson recreated the simple beauty of Roman architecture. He believed that the Capitol would inspire citizens to emulate the ideals of the ancient Roman Republic, which included an emphasis on civic participation and public virtue. Background: A life-long student of architecture, Jefferson was a forceful critic of the backward state of American building practices. In Notes on Virginia he lamented that “the genius of architecture seems to have shed its maledictions of this land.” While in France, Jefferson fell in love with the Maison Carrée in the French city of Nimes. The building was one of the best-preserved Roman temples in Europe. Indeed, Jefferson wrote to a friend that he could gaze for “hours at the Maison Quarree, like a lover at his mistress.” Jefferson hoped to use public architecture to inspire and educate citizens. “Whenever it is proposed to prepare plans for the Capitol,” he wrote with some urgency, “I should prefer the adoption of some one of the models of antiquity which have had the approbation of thousands of years.” Jefferson’s design, inspired by the Maison Carrée, was a model of pure Roman classicism. Chapter Connections: Jefferson’s preference for the purity of Rome as a model for public architecture was itself part of a more general cultural fascination with Roman republicanism. Newspapers frequently carried political essays signed by writers who adopted classical pseudonyms such as Cato, Brutus, and, most famously, Publius. When Virginia sought to honor George Washington the state commissioned a sculpture that cast him as the modern Cincinnatus, a comparison that invoked the ideals of the great Roman general who put the good of the republic ahead of personal interest. Roman republicanism, including its emphasis on virtue, became an important influence on post-Revolutionary political culture. Discussion Questions: Why did Jefferson believe that architecture was so important to the future of the republic? Why did Jefferson choose a Roman temple over the more popular Georgian style embodied in building such as the Pennsylvania State House? Why did Virginia commission a sculpture of Washington as the modern Cincinnatus?
- Image 5.1: George Washington as the Modern Cincinnatus George Washington is cast as the modern Cincinnatus in this sculpture. He stands in front of the plow and beside the Roman “fasces,” a bundle of rods and an ax that symbolized the legal power of magistrates. His sword rests on the “fasces,” a visual reminder that in a republic military power resides with civilian leaders.
- Image 5.2: Chippendale High Chest This pre-revolutionary chest reflected British styles, including the floral decorative patterns at the end of the curving swan’s nec pediment on top of the chest.
- Image 5.3: Samuel McIntire Carving This piece of furniture made in Salem after the Revolution uses simple classical lines. Symbols of republicanism, such as the goddess of liberty, replaced purely decorative elements.
- Image 5.4: Book of Children’s Verses (page 133) Caption: This book of children’s verse uses America’s new national symbol, the bald eagle, taken from the Great Seal of the United States. Educational materials such as this one included republican and patriotic themes. Text Excerpt: In a book of alphabet rhymes, for example, the bald eagle from the Great Seal of America, the new nation’s official symbol, represented the letter “E.” The design of the great seal had gone through many versions before Congress finally approved one that included an American eagle clutching an olive branch and thirteen arrows, symbolizing the new government’s power to make war and negotiate peace. The thirteen states are represented by the same number of stars, stripes, and arrows. Background: This children’s spelling book from the post-Revolutionary period uses the eagle from the Great Seal of the United States to illustrate the letter “E.” Considerable effort had gone into choosing and refining the design of the Great Seal. It took three separate committees and six years to finalize the design, which was officially adopted in 1782. The Great Seal included an American eagle and a shield with 13 stripes representing the original states. The eagle holds an olive branch and thirteen arrows signifying the power of the government to make war and peace. Above the eagle a constellation of stars “denotes a new State taking its place and rank among other sovereign powers.” In contrast to a traditional coat of arms, the escutcheon (shield) in the Great Seal is not supported by mythical or allegorical figures on either side. As Charles Thompson, the men responsible for finalizing the design noted: “The Escutcheon is born on the breast of an American Eagle without any other supporters to denote that the United States of America ought to rely on their own Virtue.” Chapter Connections: The republican emphasis on virtue led to an expansion of education and changes in the content of education. Yale President Ezra Stiles captured this spirit in a 1786 diary entry when he wrote that the “spirit for academy making is vigorous.” A number of new colleges and academies, including several devoted to educating young girls, were founded in the years after the Revolution. The curriculum at these institutions was adapted to America’s new republican values. The centrality of education to America’s future was reflected in provisions such as one from the Massachusetts Constitution of 1780, which affirmed that: “Wisdom, and knowledge, as well as virtue, diffused generally among the body of the people, being necessary for the preservation of their rights and liberties; and as these depend on spreading the opportunities and advantages of education in the various parts of the country, and among the different orders of the people, it shall be the duty of legislators and magistrates, in all future periods of this Commonwealth, to cherish the interests of literature and the sciences, and all seminaries of them; especially the university at Cambridge, public schools, and grammar schools in the towns.” Discussion Questions: Why did this speller use the Great Seal of the United States as an illustration? Why does the eagle in this image carry an olive branch and a bunch of arrows? Why did the designer of the Great Seal omit the traditional figures supporting the shield in the middle of the design?
- Image 5.5: Martha Ryan’s Cipher Book The cover of Martha Ryan’s cipher book proclaims liberty. Yet the book included penmanship exercises with such traditional precepts as “Honour Father and Mother . . . A good girl will mind.”
- Keep Within the Compass, 1784 Courtesy, Winterthur Museum
- Nabby Martin, Sampler, 1786
- Image 5.6: William Smith and His Grandson (page 136) Caption: In this portrait of William Smith, the artist conjures up an image of a country gentleman who devoted himself to contemplation. References to Smith’s career as a prosperous Baltimore merchant are deliberately excluded. Text Excerpt: Smith’s support for this traditional idea of virtue was reflected in this portrait painted by Charles Wilson Peale. Rather than include symbols that reflected Smith’s life as a prosperous city merchant, Peale depicted Smith as a simply dressed country gentleman. The books that the artist included, poetical works on rural life, reinforce this notion. Peale also placed Smith in front of a Roman column, another visual cue to symbolize his virtue. Background: Charles Wilson Peale’s portrait of the Baltimore merchant William Smith represents its subject as a country gentlemen who embodies the republican ideal of a disinterested statesman. The artist included a variety of different objects meant to evoke agrarian and republican values. The farmhouse and outbuildings in the background of the painting are visual symbols associated with the agrarian ideal. The peach held by Smith’s grandson and the pruning knife on the table provides another connection to the rural world of the gentlemen farmer. The books visible on the table also underscore the connection between these “country” values and civic republican ideals. Among those works clearly in view are a work of pastoral poetry, a book on gardening, and a volume of Scottish moral philosophy. The message is clear: An agrarian setting is the proper foundation for cultivating the moral sense. Finally, the republican theme of the painting is accentuated by the classical columns behind Smith. Chapter Connections: Republican values suffused American culture in the Revolutionary era. Public architecture and new school curriculum were just two of the many ways Americans sought to encourage a virtuous citizenry. The importance of land to this republican vision is difficult to overstate. Many contemporary commentators seized on this fact and noted that America was blessed with material circumstances especially conducive to promoting virtue, most importantly an abundance of land. In an election sermon delivered in 1783, Ezra Stiles, the President of Yale, reminded the citizens of Connecticut that “an equitable distribution of property enters into the foundation of a happy State.” The connection between freedom, virtue, and an agrarian society lay at the core of Jefferson’s vision for America: “Those who labour in the earth are the chosen people of God, if ever he had a chosen people, whose breasts he has made his peculiar deposit for substantial and genuine virtue. It is the focus in which he keeps alive that sacred fire, which otherwise might escape from the face of the earth. Corruption of morals in the mass of cultivators is a phenomenon of which no age nor has nation furnished an example . . . Dependence begets subservience and venality, suffocates the germ of virtue, and prepares fit tools for the designs of ambition . . . the proportion which the aggregate of the other classes of citizens bears in any state to that of its husbandmen, is the proportion of its unsound to its healthy parts, and is a good-enough barometer whereby to measure its degree of corruption. While we have land to labour then, let us never wish to see our citizens occupied at a work-bench, or twirling a distaff. Carpenters, masons, smiths, are wanting in husbandry: but, for the general operations of manufacture, let our workshops remain in Europe.” Thomas Jefferson, Notes on Virginia (1784) Discussion Questions: Why did the artist omit any reference to Smith’s role as a prosperous merchant? What symbols link Smith with agrarian values? How does the painting represent republican ideals?
- Image 5.7: The Democratization of the State Legislatures The number of wealthy legislators decreased and the number of men of moderate wealth increased. These changes were pronounced in parts of the mid-Atlantic and New England, and are reflected in the data regarding property holdings of legislators elected in New York, New Jersey, and New Hampshire.
- Image 5.8: Continental Paper Currency The value of Continental paper currency dropped precipitously as Congress printed more money, and faith in the value of the currency dwindled.
- Image 5.9: Border Disputes in Old Northwest and Southwest The British refused to abandon their forts in the Old Northwest until Congress complied with all the provisions of the Treaty of Paris. In the Old Southwest, Spain frustrated America’s efforts to secure the rights to navigate the Mississippi River.
- Image 5.10: Jefferson’s Plan for the West Jefferson’s gridlike map of his plan for the settlement of the West was influenced by the ideas of Enlightenment thinkers. The names that Jefferson proposed for these territories were inspired by the language of classical antiquity. Thus, one potential state was named Sylvania, for “a forested region.”
- Image 5.11: Court Closings and Major Battles in Shays’s Rebellion Shays and his supporters closed courts in several major towns in central and western Massachusetts. Shaysites and forces loyal to the state of Massachusetts fought a decisive battle at the Springfield state armory, where the Shaysites were routed.
- Image 5.12: Constitutional Convention Jefferson’s observation that the Framers of the Constitution were an “assembly of demigods” is captured in Thomas Rossiter’s nineteenth-century painting of the Philadelphia Convention. Rather than appear as a dark conclave, the members of the convention are bathed in light.
- Image 5.13: Comparison of the Articles of Confederation, Virginia, and New Jersey Plans Although the Virginia and New Jersey plans differed on the issue of representation, each would have given the new government the vital power of taxation.
- Image 5.14: Comparison of the Articles of Confederation and the Constitution As this chart shows, the new federal government created by the Constitution was far more powerful than the old government under the Articles of Confederation.
- Image 5.15: The Looking Glass for 1787 (page 150) Caption: This Federalist political cartoon from Connecticut portrays the state as a cart stuck in the mud and weighed down by paper money and debt. While Federalists proclaim “Comply with Congress” and pull the state toward a bright sun, the Anti-Federalists exclaim “Success to Shays” and drag the cart toward a shadowy future symbolized by the dark clouds. Text Excerpt: In this cartoon, Connecticut appears stuck in the mud. A cart laden with debt is dragged in opposite directions by Federalists and Anti-Federalists. The artist who created this pro-Federalist political cartoon stooped lower than most: One Anti-Federalist character has his trousers pulled down around his ankles and his bottom exposed to his Federalist opponents. Background: This Connecticut political cartoon casts the struggle over ratification in decidedly Federalist terms. Connecticut is shown as a wagon stuck in the mud, its progress stalled by its heavy burden of debt. The figure in the wagon proclaims: “Gentlemen this Machine is deep in the mire and you are divided as to its releaf [sic].” Federalists try to pull the wagon to a bright future as Anti-Federalist seek to drag the state toward a stormy future and a fiery end. The Federalists pulling the wagon urge Connecticut to “Comply with Congress.” The Anti-Federalists, by contrast, proclaim that “the People are oprest; [sic]” and heap “curses on to Foederal Govermt [sic]” while wishing “Success to Shays.” Chapter Connections: The problems of the Confederation period, including state debts, excessive reliance on paper money, and a failure to comply with Congressional requisitions for funds are all included in this cartoon. The cartoon also captures the Federalists’ belief that their opponents were supporters of Daniel Shays. The cartoon mocks common Anti-Federalist claims, most notably the charge that the new Constitution favored the wealthy and would result in a government run by a wealthy aristocracy. Discussion Questions: What does the wagon in this image represent? How does the artist signal his low regard for the Anti-Federalists? What visual cues suggest that the Federalist solution is preferable to the Anti-Federalist one?
- Image 5.16: Anti-Federalist versus Federalist Ideas Anti-Federalists and Federalists each believed in republican government, but they disagreed over how to structure such a government to protect liberty.
- Image 5.17: Pewterers’ Banner (page 153) Caption: In a New York City parade celebrating the Constitution, Federalist artisans carried a banner that included the U.S. flag and depicted artisans crafting objects of pewter. The verse at the top proclaims the bright future for America under the new Constitution. Text Excerpt: Another group of artisans carried this banner, which celebrated their work with pewter, an alloy of tin and lead that was widely used to make tableware. Background: This banner was carried in New York’s grand federal procession, a parade intended to rally support for ratification of the Constitution. The pewterers’ banner reflected the pride in craft associated with artisanal production. The banner links the Federalists’ nationalist agenda with artisan interests. An American flag with 13 stars sits in the upper left; below the flag the pewterers’ own coat of arms is proudly displayed. A small banner proclaims the twin values of their craft: "SOLID AND PURE." The other side of the banner contains a scene of the interior of a pewterer's shop showing artisans hard at work. The text above the artisan shop proclaims: The Federal Plan Most Solid & SecureAmericans Their Freedom Will EndureAll Art Shall Flourish in Columbia's LandAnd All her Sons Join as One Social Band Chapter Connections: Artisans were part of the broad coalition that came together to support the Constitution. Frustrations with the weak central government of the Articles of Confederation was one of the main reasons artisans supported the Constitution. A stronger central government would provide greater protection for artisans from foreign competition. Several of the banners carried in the procession by different artisan group reiterated this theme. The Bakers’ float boasted a 10-foot-long federal loaf of bread and this verse: When in confusion, I was made Without foundation was I laidBut hope the Federal Oven may,My sinking frame full well repay The chair makers’ float included a lathe and a pair of Windsor chairs with the words “free trade” emblazoned on them. In addition to these sentiments, the chair makers offered these poetic verses to the crowd: The Fed’ral states in union bound, O’er all the world our chairs found Discussion Questions: What was the grand federal procession? Why did artisans wish to abandon the Articles of Confederation? Why did the pewterers’ banner proclaim that arts and industry would flourish under the Constitution?
- Image 5.18: Geographical Distribution of the Vote on Ratification Support for the Constitution was strongest along coastal regions and frontiers exposed to threats from external enemies and among small states such as Delaware, Maryland, and New Jersey. Anti-Federalism was strongest in the backcountry regions of New England, the mid-Atlantic, and the South.