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Chapter 13: A Nation Torn Apart: The Civil War, 1861-1865
1. 1 Visions of America, A History of the United States
CHAPTER
1 Visions of America, A History of the United States
A Nation Torn Apart
The Civil War, 1861â1865
13
1 Visions of America, A History of the United States
2. 2 Visions of America, A History of the United States
3. 3 Visions of America, A History of the United States
A Nation Torn Apart
I. Mobilization, Strategy, and Diplomacy
II. The Early Campaigns, 1861â1863
III. Behind the Lines
IV. Toward Union Victory
THE CIVIL WAR, 1861â1865
3 Visions of America, A History of the United States
4. 4 Visions of America, A History of the United States
Mobilization, Strategy, and Diplomacy
A. Comparative Advantages and
Disadvantages
B. Mobilization in the North
C. Mobilization in the South
D. The Struggle for the Border States
E. Wartime Diplomacy
5. 5 Visions of America, A History of the United States
Comparative Advantages and
Disadvantages
What significant advantages did the North
hold over the South on the eve of war?
6. 6 Visions of America, A History of the United States
7. 7 Visions of America, A History of the United States
8. 8 Visions of America, A History of the United States
9. 9 Visions of America, A History of the United States
Mobilization in the North
Why did Southerners seek to link secession
to the American Revolution?
10. 10 Visions of America, A History of the United States
11. 11 Visions of America, A History of the United States
Mobilization in the South
How did the doctrine of statesâ rights hinder
the Southern war effort?
12. 12 Visions of America, A History of the United States
The Struggle for the Border States
What made the Border States so
economically and militarily valuable to the
Confederacy?
13. 13 Visions of America, A History of the United States
The Struggle for the Border States
Border States â The four slave states,
Missouri, Kentucky, Maryland, and
Delaware, that bordered the Confederacy
âą The Lincoln administration succeeded in
keeping these states in the Union.
14. 14 Visions of America, A History of the United States
15. 15 Visions of America, A History of the United States
Wartime Diplomacy
Why did Lincoln decide to back down and
release the Confederates in the Trent Affair?
16. 16 Visions of America, A History of the United States
Wartime Diplomacy
Cotton Embargo â A ban imposed by
Confederates in 1861 on the export of
cotton
âą The goal was to prompt cotton-importing
nations to intervene to secure Confederate
independence.
Trent Affair â A diplomatic incident in 1861
when a U.S. Navy vessel removed two
Confederates from the British ship Trent
17. 17 Visions of America, A History of the United States
18. 18 Visions of America, A History of the United States
The Early Campaigns, 1861â1865
A. No Short and Bloodless War
B. The Peninsular Campaign
C. A New Kind of War
D. Toward Emancipation
E. Slaughter and Stalemate
19. 19 Visions of America, A History of the United States
No Short and Bloodless War
Why did the First Battle of Bull Run take
place before either army was adequately
prepared?
20. 20 Visions of America, A History of the United States
21. 21 Visions of America, A History of the United States
The Peninsular Campaign
Why did the Peninsular Campaign fail?
22. 22 Visions of America, A History of the United States
The Peninsular Campaign
Peninsular Campaign â The complex plan
developed by General George B. McClellan
to capture the Confederate capital
âą Four hundred ships deposited 120,000
soldiers east of Richmond at Fortress Monroe
between the James and York Rivers.
23. 23 Visions of America, A History of the United States
24. 24 Visions of America, A History of the United States
A New Kind of War
Why is the Civil War considered the first
modern war?
25. 25 Visions of America, A History of the United States
A New Kind of War
Modern Warfare â Military conflict involving
enormous armies that utilize the
technologies of the Industrial Revolution
âą Uses advances in communications,
transportation, and firearms.
âą Victory is secured by destroying the enemyâs
army and inflicting suffering on civilian
populations.
26. 26 Visions of America, A History of the United States
27. 27 Visions of America, A History of the United States
Toward Emancipation
How did Lincoln expect the Emancipation
Proclamation to benefit the Union war
effort?
28. 28 Visions of America, A History of the United States
Toward Emancipation
Contraband of War â The term used to
justify the refusal to return fugitive slaves to
their owners because they were seized
property
Emancipation Proclamation â Lincolnâs
1862 decree that declared slaves in the
seceded states not under Union army
control âforever freeâ
29. 29 Visions of America, A History of the United States
Images as History
WHO FREED THE SLAVES?
Theodor Kaufmannâs painting,
âOn to Libertyâ Freedmenâs Memorial
30. 30 Visions of America, A History of the United States
Images as History
WHO FREED THE SLAVES?
Women are
portrayed as
dignified and
courageous
leaders.
Two children
in the middle
seem
reluctant.
Smoke
emanates
from a Civil
War battle.
Slaves walk
toward Union
lines, which
represented
liberation.
31. 31 Visions of America, A History of the United States
Images as History
WHO FREED THE SLAVES?
Lincoln stands over
the slave, emphasizing
hisâand all white
peopleâsâsuperiority.
The slave kneels,
suggesting a passive
role in his liberation.
Lincoln stretches
out his hand,
evoking a biblical
prophet or Christ
giving a blessing.
32. 32 Visions of America, A History of the United States
Slaughter and Stalemate
Why did photography have a more powerful
impact on the public than artistsâ depictions
of battles?
33. 33 Visions of America, A History of the United States
34. 34 Visions of America, A History of the United States
Behind the Lines
A. Meeting the Demands of Modern War
B. Hardships on the Home Front
C. New Roles for Women
D. Copperheads
E. Conscription and Civil Unrest
35. 35 Visions of America, A History of the United States
Meeting the Demands of Modern War
How did the Union fund the war?
36. 36 Visions of America, A History of the United States
Hardships on the Home Front
In what ways did the war change Northern
society? What were its effects on Southern
society?
37. 37 Visions of America, A History of the United States
38. 38 Visions of America, A History of the United States
New Roles for Women
What new opportunities did the war open up
for women?
39. 39 Visions of America, A History of the United States
Copperheads
What was the basis of the criticisms leveled
at Abraham Lincoln by his critics in the
North, including the Copperheads? How did
he respond?
40. 40 Visions of America, A History of the United States
Copperheads
Copperheads â Northern Democrats
(sometimes called âPeace Democratsâ)
who opposed the war and the Lincoln
administration and favored a negotiated
settlement with the Confederacy
41. 41 Visions of America, A History of the United States
Conscription and Civil Unrest
Why did the Lincoln administration impose a
draft in 1863?
Why did New Yorkers riot against the draft?
42. 42 Visions of America, A History of the United States
Conscription and Civil Unrest
Conscription Act â A law passed in 1863 to
offset the declining number of volunteers to
the Union Army
âą It declared all male citizens (and immigrants
who had applied for citizenship) aged twenty
to forty-five eligible to be drafted into the
Union Army.
âą The rich could pay a $300 fee to avoid the
draft.
43. 43 Visions of America, A History of the United States
Conscription and Civil Unrest
Draft Riots â Four days of rioting in New
York City in July 1863 by mostly poor,
immigrant, and working-class men who
opposed the draft
44. 44 Visions of America, A History of the United States
45. 45 Visions of America, A History of the United States
Competing Visions
CIVIL LIBERTIES IN A CIVIL WAR
Are principles such as civil liberties subject to different
treatment during a national crisis such as war?
âCopperheadâ
Democrats argued
that placing military
authority over civil
authority violated
the Constitution.
Lincoln argued that
his actions were
constitutional and
were necessary to
preserve the
Union.
46. 46 Visions of America, A History of the United States
Competing Visions
CIVIL LIBERTIES IN A CIVIL WAR
47. 47 Visions of America, A History of the United States
Toward Union Victory
A. Turning Point: 1863
B. African Americans under Arms
C. The Confederacy Begins to Crumble
D. Victory in Battle and at the Polls
E. War Is Hell
48. 48 Visions of America, A History of the United States
Turning Point: 1863
Why did Lee decide to invade the North a
second time?
49. 49 Visions of America, A History of the United States
African Americans under Arms
How were African-American soldiers treated
in the Union Army?
What role did African-American soldiers play
in the Union war effort?
Why did Lincoln initially agree to pay
African-American soldiers less than white
soldiers?
50. 50 Visions of America, A History of the United States
51. 51 Visions of America, A History of the United States
52. 52 Visions of America, A History of the United States
Choices and Consequences
Early in the war,
African-American
soldiers received the
same pay as whites.
In June 1863, pay for
African Americans
was cut from $13 to
$7 a month.
EQUAL PERIL, UNEQUAL PAY
53. 53 Visions of America, A History of the United States
Choices and Consequences
Choices regarding unequal pay
EQUAL PERIL, UNEQUAL PAY
Quietly accept
lower wages
Reject lower
wages on
principle,
protest and
lobby for
equal pay, but
continue to
fulfill duties as
soldiers
Refuse to
obey orders
until equal
pay is offered
Accept lower
wages but
protest and
lobby for
equal pay
54. 54 Visions of America, A History of the United States
Choices and Consequences
Decision and consequences
âą Rejected lower wages on principle, despite
financial hardship.
âą Continued to fulfill duties, protested, and
lobbied for equal pay
âą Over a year later, Congress authorized equal
pay scale for all soldiers.
What role did African American soldiers play in the
Union war effort?
EQUAL PERIL, UNEQUAL PAY
55. 55 Visions of America, A History of the United States
Choices and Consequences
Continuing Controversies
âąHow were African Americans in the military
treated after the Civil War?
EQUAL PERIL, UNEQUAL PAY
56. 56 Visions of America, A History of the United States
The Confederacy Begins to Crumble
How did the Union blockade affect the
Confederate war effort?
57. 57 Visions of America, A History of the United States
Envisioning Evidence
HUMAN RESOURCES IN THE ARMIES OF THE CIVIL WAR
How did the Unionâs 2:1 advantage over the Confederacy
in overall population play a role in winning the war?
58. 58 Visions of America, A History of the United States
Envisioning Evidence
HUMAN RESOURCES IN THE ARMIES OF THE CIVIL WAR
The Confederacyâs refusal to arm African Americans further decreased
its human resources.
Both the Union and Confederate armies included immigrants.
59. 59 Visions of America, A History of the United States
60. 60 Visions of America, A History of the United States
Victory in Battle and at the Polls
What distinguished Grantâs approach to war
from his predecessorsâ?
61. 61 Visions of America, A History of the United States
62. 62 Visions of America, A History of the United States
63. 63 Visions of America, A History of the United States
64. 64 Visions of America, A History of the United States
War Is Hell
What steps did the Republican Party take to
improve Lincolnâs changes for victory in 1864?
Why did Sherman destroy so much property in
Georgia?
What conciliatory measures toward the
Confederates did Grant adopt at Leeâs
surrender?
65. 65 Visions of America, A History of the United States
War Is Hell
Shermanâs March to the Sea â The 285-
mile âscorched earthâ campaign of General
William T. Sherman across Georgia in late
1864 and early 1865
âąShermanâs soldiers seized or destroyed $100
million in goods, hurting Southern morale and
depriving the Confederate army of supplies.
66. 66 Visions of America, A History of the United States
War is Hell
Special Field Order No. 15 â Shermanâs
directive announced during his March to the
Sea that set aside more than 400,000 acres
of seized Confederate land for distribution to
former slaves in 40-acre plots
67. 67 Visions of America, A History of the United States
68. 68 Visions of America, A History of the United States
69. 69 Visions of America, A History of the United States
Chapter Review Questions
1. What advantages allowed the Confederacy to enjoy military
success in the early years of the war?
2. Why did both North and South consider the Border States
vital?
3. How did African Americans contribute to emancipation?
4. How did the war change Northern society and the federal
government?
5. What approach to warfare set Generals Ulysses S. Grant
and William T. Sherman apart from less successful Union
military leaders?
6. How did social, economic, and class differences in Southern
society contribute to the Confederacyâs defeat?
Hinweis der Redaktion
Chapter Opener: âEntrance of the Fifty-Fifth Massachusetts (colored) Regiment into Charleston February 21, 1865.â (page 375)
Text Excerpt: The soldiers depicted in this joyous scene were among the nearly 200,000 African-American soldiers who contributed to the Union armyâs successful campaign to defeat the Confederacy. In February 1865, a few weeks after the second anniversary of the Emancipation Proclamation, the popular magazine Harperâs Weekly published this drawing, âEntrance of the Fifty-Fifth Massachusetts (colored) Regiment into Charleston Feb 21, 1865.â The image reflected not merely a growing acceptance of slaveryâs demise among Northerners, but also the celebration of emancipation as a noble cause, along with restoration of the Union, that helped the North justify the terrible human cost of the war.
Background: The Fifty-Fifth Massachusetts Regiment of African-American volunteers was formed in July 1863, just as its far better-known brother regiment, the Fifty-Fourth Massachusetts, garnered praise for fighting so courageously in the assault on Fortress Wagner in South Carolina. The 55th was deployed in several locations along the southern coastline of the United States, from South Carolina to Florida, and they faced many of the same challenges as the 54th, including racism at the hands of some white soldiers and officers. Like the 54th, they also refused to accept any pay until the government agreed to pay them the same amount as white soldiers (see âChoices and Consequencesâ).
The scene captured in this drawing that appeared in Harperâs Weekly is full of significant detail. To begin with, the soldiers of the 55th walk with the hats atop their bayonets, a symbol of triumph. Information accompanying the image tells readers that the men are singing âJohn Brownâs Body,â a popular song among regiments of the Union Army through the course of the war. The song had many versions, all of which celebrated the abolitionist John Brown and his ill-fated attack on the South in 1859. It is not known which version these African-American soldiers sang. One popular version went:
John Brownâs body lies a-mouldering in the grave;
His soulâs marching on!
(Chorus)
Glory, glory, hallelujah! Glory, glory, hallelujah!
Glory, glory, hallelujah! his soulâs marching on!
Heâs gone to be a soldier in the army of the Lord!
His soulâs marching on!
Another version more explicitly celebrated Brownâs attempt to abolish slavery:
Old John Brownâs body lies moldering in the grave,
While weep the sons of bondage whom he ventured all to save;
But tho he lost his life while struggling for the slave,
His soul is marching on.
⊠Ye soldiers of Freedom, then strike, while strike ye may,
The death blow of oppression in a better time and way,
For the dawn of old John Brown has brightened into day,
And his soul is marching on
Regardless of which version of the song they sang, the scene of African Americans in the blue uniform of the Union army marching triumphantly through Charleston, South Carolina was extraordinary. Less than four years earlier, Charleston had been the scene of the opening shots of the Civil War (Fort Sumter), and the city had long been a center of zealous Southern nationalism. It had also served as one of the nationâs primary markets for the buying and selling of slaves before the war. But in early 1865, a regiment of African Americansâmany of them former slavesâparaded through the streets as part of a victorious army. In the background, the once-defiant city of Charleston lies in ruins, a condition symbolic of the wider destruction of Southern society and the system of slavery that lay at its foundation. Months later, African-American troops would enter the fallen Confederate capital of Richmond, Virginia in a similar manner.
One especially important theme in the image concerns the reaction of the African-American residents of Charleston. For decades leading up to the war, defenders of slavery had insisted that slaves were happy with their condition, that they loved their masters and did not understand, much less want, freedom. Yet from the very start of the war, African Americans across the South exposed the fallacy of these claims by seizing any opportunity to gain their freedom. In this scene in the heart of the Confederacy, African Americansânearly all of whom would have been enslaved at the start of the warâcheer on the soldiers of the 55th as liberators. Some gesture heavenward as if to thank God for their deliverance from bondage, while others point to them while speaking to their children.
This scene represents a vivid example of how the Civil Warâmost wars, in factâbegan with a conservative goal (preservation of the Union), but then rapidly was transformed to include the radical goal of ending slavery.
Chapter Connections:
Competing Visions over whether the Union war aims should be expanded to include emancipation.
Competing Visions over the idea of allowing African Americans into the Union army and whether or not they would prove good soldiers.
Competing Visions over the attitude of the enslaved toward slavery: Slaveholders claimed slaves were happy and content with their status; abolitionists declared that slaves lived lives of misery and longed to be free.
Discussion Questions:
What developments during the Civil War led the Lincoln administration to embrace both emancipation and the enlistment of African Americans in the Union army?
Why did the Union army insist that African-American regiments be led by white officers?
How did military service strengthen the postwar demands of African Americans for citizenship and civil rights?
Image 13.1: Union Advantages on the Eve of War, 1861
The enormous disparities between North and South suggested to many a quick Union victory. But many factors beyond these statistics, notably superior Confederate military leadership, would make for a long and bloody war.
Image 13.2: âThe Eagleâs Nestâ (page 377)
Caption: Northerners promoted patriotic sentiment in speeches, songs, and printed matter. This poster, âThe Eagleâs Nest,â linked the Union cause to familiar images such as the bald eagle and the flag.
Text Excerpt: A final Union advantage over the Confederacy was the firm belief among many Northern soldiers that they were fighting to uphold the Constitution, and the Union. This sentiment was stoked by a profusion of speeches, songs, and printed matter like the poster âThe Eagles Nest,â extolling the Union cause.
Background: In 1861, Americans had long understood the bald eagle as a symbol of the United States. This association began in 1782, when Congress approved the Great Seal of the United States. This national logo features a bald eagle clutching an olive branch (a symbol of peace) in one claw and arrows (a symbol of war) in the other. Congress chose the bald eagle because members believed that it symbolized strength, nobility, and freedom. (Benjamin Franklin famously argued that the turkey was a better choice.) The Great Seal, which soon appeared on government documents, buildings, and currency, popularized the image of the eagle, and by the 1790s it was a common feature in patriotic emblems and political cartoons. This popularity continued to grow in the nineteenth century.
The artist who created âThe Eagleâs Nestâ in 1861 understood the power of the bald eagle image as a symbol of a Union that desired peace but was committed to fighting to defeat the Confederatesâ attempt to destroy it. In addition, the artist is keen to characterize secession not as a legitimate bid for independence, but rather as treason. Out of the eagleâs mouth appear the uncompromising words, âAnnihilation to Traitors,â and a close look at the eggs representing Southern states reveals the names of key Confederate leaders like Beauregard, Toombs, and Yancey. Jefferson Davis is shown in the form of a wolf, while Gen. P.G.T. Beauregard appears as a fox, images that suggest treachery and deceit.
Chapter Connections:
Competing Visions over the legitimacy of secession, with Southerners claiming a Constitutional right to secede and Northerners deeming secession an act of treason
Competing Visions over which side, the Union or Confederacy, was most faithful to the ideals of the American Revolution
Competing Visions over which side was destined to win the war in a quick and decisive fashion
Discussion Questions:
Why did most Northerners deem secession an unconstitutional and treasonous act?
What led both Northerners and Southerners to believe the war would be short and that they would triumph?
Why was it important for both North and South to link their cause to the American Revolution and the founding fathers?
Image 13.3: Connecting to the Colonial Cause
As in the North, Southerners fostered unity, emphasizing the connection between the colonistsâ revolt against British rule during the American Revolution and the Confederate bid for Southern independence.
Image 13.4: The Zouaves of the 11th New York
Many regiments raised to fight for the Union and the Confederacy included inexperienced men whose romantic visions of warfare were expressed in their fanciful uniforms.
Image 13.5: The Vital Border States
The Border States (Missouri, Kentucky, Maryland, and Delaware) held enormous strategic, military, economic, and symbolic value for both sides. In the end, the Lincoln administration succeeded in keeping them in the Union.
Image 13.6: Diplomatic Dust-Up (page 380)
Caption: Jack Bull (Great Britain) threatens Uncle Sam in the wake of the Trent Affair, an incident that nearly prompted the British to intervene in the war.
Text Excerpt: In November 1861, a U.S. warship stopped the British ship Trent and removed two Confederates heading for Europe to press for foreign recognition. As indicated in this cartoon from the British magazine Punch, Britain reacted with outrage to the Trent Affair, putting its military forces on alert. âYou do what is right,â Britannia warns a bellicose but smaller America, âor Iâll blow you out of the water.â
Background: This cartoon, âLook Out For Squallsâ features two popular symbols of the United States and Great Britain. The latter, as indicated in the caption, was named âJohn Bull,â a nickname that originated in the early eighteenth century. The former, âUncle Samâ originated a century later during the War of 1812. Soldiers in the Army, seeing their supplies labeled âU.S.â began to playfully suggest that they came from âUncle Sam.â Soon Uncle Sam became a nickname for the federal government. The image of Uncle Sam, however, took many decades to reach its current familiar form. Initially, artists and cartoonists simply imposed the name âUncle Samâ on an earlier patriotic symbol named Brother Jonathan, a man dressed in red and white striped pants and a blue coat. It was during the Civil War that the modern Uncle Sam image took shape, as artists (most notably political cartoonist Thomas Nast) began depicting him as an older man with white hair, beard, and a pugnacious attitude. In this cartoon, published in a British magazine, Uncle Sam is shown as much smaller than John Bull, a choice that reflected British notions of military, economic, and cultural superiority.
The Trent Affair was not the only controversy that erupted during the Civil War between the Union and Great Britain. British shipyards constructed many ships for the Confederate navy to serve as commerce raiders and blockade runners. The most famous of these ships, the CSS Alabama, was launched in July 1862 whereupon it began a two-year campaign on the Atlantic as a commerce raider, seizing and destroying 65 Union ships at a cost of more than $6 million. When the Lincoln administration protested, the British government responded that because the shipyards were privately owned, the government could not prevent the construction and delivery of ships to the Confederacy. But one year later, after intense diplomatic efforts by Secretary of State William Seward, the British government changed its position and agreed to block delivery of vessels to the Confederacy. After the war, however, the United States pursued payment for damages caused by the Alabama and other British-made ships. In 1872, after years of diplomatic squabbling, Great Britain agreed to pay the United States $15.5 million in restitution.
Chapter Connections:
Competing Visions over the need for the Union to impose a naval blockade on the Confederacy while at the same time not provoking a declaration of war by Europe powers
Competing Visions over the best way to use the Confederacyâs cotton exports: continue to sell cotton to earn badly needed revenue, or embargo it in the hopes that cotton shortages will compel England and France to aid the Confederacy
Competing Visions within Great Britain between the aristocracyâs support for the Confederacy and the working classesâ support for the Union
Discussion Questions:
What led Southerners to believe that they could convince England and France to enter the war on their behalf?
Why did the Confederacy impose a âcotton embargoâ?
Why did Lincoln decide to quell the Trent Affair by releasing the Confederate envoys?
Image 13.7: Major Battles in the West, 1862â1863
Grantâs army and Farragutâs naval force moved swiftly in 1862 to seize control of the Mississippi to cut the Confederacy in half.
Image 13.8: Major Battles in the East, 1861â1862
McClellan devised an elaborate plan to land his army on the Virginia peninsula below Richmond. But his slowness in moving his army and hesitancy in attacking handed the initiative to the Confederates and led to defeat.
Image 13.9: The Minie Ball
The conical-shaped minie ball (left) replaced round musket balls (right) and greatly increased the accuracy of rifle fire. Its adoption during the Civil War contributed significantly to the high death toll in combat.
Theodore Kaufmannâs âOn to Libertyâ (1867)
Widespread self-emancipation by slaves in the early years of the war eventually prompted the Lincoln administration to make emancipation official policy. Kaufmannâs painting celebrates African Americansâ own role in attaining their freedom.
Theodore Kaufmannâs âOn to Liberty (1867), continued
Freedmenâs Memorial (1876)
This monument represents President Lincoln as the sole individual responsible for emancipation, with African Americans as passive figures who played no role in gaining their freedom.
Image 13.10: âDead soldiers along the Sunken Road, Antietamâ (1862)
The Civil War was the first military conflict in American history captured by the relatively new medium of photography. Photographs such as this one taken by Alexander Gardner after the battle of Antietam brought home to millions of Americans the brutality of modern war.
Image 13.11: Anger on the Home Front
Runaway inflation and scarcity of necessities sparked angry accusations that speculators were hoarding supplies and selling them at extortionate prices. Here a speculator counts his profits while a starving mother and child look on.
Image 13.12: Opposition to the Draft Turns Violent
Poor New Yorkers rioted against the draft in July 1863, venting their anger on army recruiting stations and against African Americans, who they blamed for the war.
Northern Unionists depicted Copperheads as traitors who threatened the Republic. Here Liberty defends herself from the Copperheads with the shield of Union.
Image 13.13: Held Back by Racism
Believing African Americans lacked the courage to fight under fire, Union commanders initially relegated them to noncombat roles. Eventually, however, blacks fought in 449 battles, including the Battle of Millikenâs Bend on June 7, 1863 (center).
Image 13.14: Fort Pillow massacre (page 395)
Caption: In April 1864, Confederate soldiers slaughtered dozens of captured African-American soldiers at Fort Pillow in Tennessee.
Text Excerpt: In the Fort Pillow Massacre in Tennessee, Confederate troops murdered dozens of captured black soldiers in April 1864. This image, which ran in a popular Northern magazine, depicted Confederates as brutal and inhumane. Southern publications ran similar images that alleged Northern atrocities.
Background: The Fort Pillow Massacre began as the Battle of Fort Pillow on April 12, 1864. Fort Pillow was located on the Mississippi River in Henning, Tennessee. Originally built by the Confederate army, it fell into Union hands in 1862. In 1864 it was held by a Union force of some 350 African-American soldiers and 250 white Tennessee volunteers. Nearly a month before the fateful battle and massacre, Confederate cavalry commander Major General Nathan Bedford Forrest commenced cavalry raid into western Tennessee and Kentucky. With a force of 7,000, Forrest intended to seize Union supplies and demolish military posts and fortifications from Paducah, Kentucky, south to Memphis. By early April, Forrestâs troops had wrought considerable havoc in the region but found themselves low on supplies. Aware that Fort Pillow was manned by just 600 men and contained military supplies, food, and horses, Forrest detached a force of 1,500 to seize it.
The attack began on the morning of April 12 and by midafternoon, the Union forces within the fort were reeling. Forrest sent a note demanding the fort surrender. When the Union commander refused, the Confederates began an all-out assault. They quickly penetrated the fortâs walls, and the Union troops within began to surrender. But according to the accounts of many survivors, as well as several detailed investigations by the government (and later by historians), Confederate soldiers refused to accept their surrender and systematically shot and bayoneted scores to death. While many white Union soldiers died in the massacre, most of the dead were African-American soldiers. Confederate soldiers, apparently outraged at the idea of free African-Americans under arms, showed them no mercy, killing many who were incapacitated by wounds. According to one account of the slaughter by a Confederate officer soon after the battle, African American soldiers âwould run up to our men, fall upon their knees, and with uplifted hand scream for mercy, but were ordered to their feet and then shot down.â
When it was over, the Union death toll stood at nearly 300, or approximately 50 percent of the garrisonâan extraordinarily high number. Of this number, the great majority of the dead were African-American soldiers. Only 58 blacks were taken prisoner.
Forrestâs official report did not mention the massacre. Instead, he claimed the high death toll resulted from the refusal of the Union soldiers to surrender. A subsequent investigation by the Lincoln administration flatly rejected this claim and declared that a massacre had taken place. The incident prompted the Lincoln administration to threaten reprisals against Confederate prisoners if the Confederacy killed or sent into slavery any African-American soldiers.
Chapter Connections:
Competing Visions over the legitimacy of allowing African Americans to serve in the Union and Confederate armies
Competing Visions over whether African-American soldiers should receive the same wages as white soldiers
The use of propaganda to demonize the enemyâin this case, Union newspapers and magazines publishing vivid accounts and images of the atrocities committed by Confederates at Fort Pillow
Discussion Questions:
Why were many Confederate officers and soldiers so incensed by the presence of African-American soldiers?
How significant was the contribution of African-American soldiers and sailors to the Union war effort?
How did black military service play a role in shaping the way African Americans defined freedom?
Image 13.15: Cotton for Sale?
A Confederate version of âColumbiaâ (a precursor to Lady Liberty) leans on cotton bales that cannot reach European markets due to the Union blockade represented by the ship passing on the horizon. This image was featured on âcotton bondsâ sold in Europe to raise cash for the Confederacy.
Image 13.16: The Final Battles in Virginia Campaign, 1864â1865
Grantâs strategy for defeating Lee was to combine superior strength and a relentless offensive. It resulted in extremely high casualties but eventually cornered Lee at Petersburg. Lee surrendered at nearby Appomattox Courthouse on April 9, 1865.
Image 13.17: Shermanâs March to the Sea, 1864â1865
Sherman dealt a decisive blow to the Confederate cause by waging a scorched-earth campaign across Georgia, destroying vital supplies and
weakening Southern morale.
Image 13.18: Lincoln Promises Victory and Union (page 399)
Caption: Lincolnâs 1864 presidential campaign suggested that while he stood for liberty, his opponent, Democrat George B. McClellan, would make peace with the Confederates and preserve slavery.
Text Excerpt: Finally, as this campaign broadside illustrates, Lincolnâs campaign argued that a vote for McClellan was a vote for slavery and military defeat. While Lincoln shakes hands with an artisan (representing the âfree laborâ North), McClellan shakes hands with Jefferson Davis who stands beneath the flag of an independent Confederate nation with a slave auction taking place in the background. Behind Lincoln, white and black children enjoy the benefits of freedom and education.
As late as August 1864, however, Lincoln and many of his supporters expected to lose.
Background: In the election of 1864, the American republic faced one of its greatest tests. No republic had ever held democratic elections in the midst of a civil war and many worried about its outcome, especially if Lincoln lost and was faced with the prospect of handing over power to his bitter rival, General George B. McClellan. Some Northerners argued that given the gravity of the situationâa brutal civil war now in its third yearâLincoln should suspend the election until the warâs conclusion. But Lincoln rejected this argument, saying, âWe cannot have free government without free elections.â
This unique election featured a number of unique details. To begin with, it was the first election that did not include the South. Of the 25 states in the Union that did participate, three were new states added to the Union since the outbreak of the war: Nevada, West Virginia, and Kansas. Voters in large portions of Louisiana and Tennessee, former Confederate states now under Union army control, were allowed to choose presidential electors to the Electoral College. Finally, and perhaps most significant, the election allowed soldiers in the field to cast ballots for the first time in American history. This decision proved extremely beneficial to Lincoln, as he received 78% of the soldier vote.
The election also constituted a great test for President Abraham Lincoln. For most of 1864, he was convinced that re-election was all but impossible. The Union army under General Ulysses S. Grant in the spring of 1864 had begun to win a series of major victories in Virginia, but the cost in human life was appalling. Many Northerners thought Grant a callous and reckless general who heedlessly sacrificed the lives of his men. By extension, these critics blamed Lincoln for putting Grant in charge and for not winning the war a lot sooner.
Chapter Connections:
Competing Visions over whether democratic elections are possible in the midst of a civil war.
Competing Visions over the best way to end the war: Democrats called for a ceasefire and a negotiated settlement, while Republicans argued for pressing on to complete victory.
A vivid demonstration of how military events often exerted tremendous influence on politics.
Discussion Questions:
Why did Lincoln believe for most of 1864 that he would lose the election?
Why did Republicans join with pro-war Democrats to form the National Union party?
Why was Union victory in the Battle of Atlanta so important to Lincolnâs election victory two months later?
Image 13.19: Total War and Vengeance
Fires set by retreating Confederates, freed slaves, and undisciplined members of Shermanâs army left half of Columbia, South Carolina, in ruins.
Image 13.20: A Thirst for Vengeance
After the war, many Northerners called for Jefferson Davis and other high-ranking Confederates to be hanged as traitors.
