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Bone infection in children ppt
1. Bone And Joint Infection In Children
Dr Sunetra Roy
DCH, DNB (PEDIATRICS)
2. Introduction
Bone infections in children are relatively common and
important because of their potential to cause permanent
disability.
Early recognition and prompt institution of appropriate
medical and surgical therapy minimize permanent
damage.
The risk is greatest if the physis (the growth plate of
bone) is damaged.
3.
4. Epidemiology
The median age 6 yr.∼
Incidence = 1:5,000
Boys > Girls
No predilection for any Race (Except Sickle cell disease – Blacks)
In Previously healthy children- mostly hematogenous.
Minor closed trauma - common preceding event ( 30% cases)∼
Infection of bones can follow penetrating injuries or open
fractures.
Following orthopedic surgery.
Impaired host defenses increases the risk of skeletal infection.
5. Etiology of Osteomyelitis and Septic Arthritis
Infant 0-2 months Staphylococcus aureus
Streptococcus agalactiae
Gram-negative enteric bacteria
Candida
<5 y Staphylococcus aureus
Streptococcus pyogenes
Streptococcus pneumoniae
Kingella kingae
Haemophilus influenzae type b
>5 y S. aureus
S. Pyogenes
Adolescent Neisseria gonorrhoeae
6. MOST COMMON CLINICAL
ASSOCIATION
MICROORGANISM
Frequent microorganism in any type of
osteomyelitis
Staph. aureus
Common in nosocomial infection Enterobacteriaceae, Pseudomonas
aeruginosa, candida spp.
Foreign body–associated infection Coagulase-negative staphylococci or
other skin flora, atypical mycobacteria
Decubitus ulcers Streptococci and/or anaerobic bacteria
Populations in which tuberculosis is
prevalent
Mycobacterium tuberculosis
Exposure to kittens Bartonella henselae
Immunocompromised patients Aspergillus spp., Candida albicans, or
Mycobacteria spp.
Microorganisms Isolated fromPatients with Osteomyelitis
7. Pathogenesis
In the metaphysis, nutrient arteries branch into
non-anastomosing capillaries under the
physis make a sharp loop before entering
venous sinusoids draining into the marrow
( Hair-pin Ends)
Blood flow, sluggish and provides an ideal
environment for bacterial seeding
Relative paucity of phagocytic cells in this
area
8. Pathogenesis- In neonates and young infants
Transphyseal blood vessels connect
the metaphysis and epiphysis
commonly pus from the metaphysis
enters the joint space
Result in abnormal growth and bone
or joint deformity
Joint involvement takes place when
the metaphysis is intra- articular as in
hip, ankle, shoulder, and elbow joint
or when subperiosteal pus ruptures
into the joint space
9. Pathogenesis- In child >18 months
Spread through the cortex.
Porous metaphyseal cortex provides easy assess for the exit
of exuate or pus
Elevates the periosteum (thick periosteum loosly adherent to
the cortex)
Subperiosteal pus collection(further impairing blood supply to
the cortex and metaphysis)
Enough periosteal destruction soft tissue abcess.→
10. Pathogenesis…In later childhood and adolescence
The growth plate closes, hematogenous osteomyelitis more often
begins in the diaphysis and can spread to the entire
intramedullary canal.
Closed plate is relativley resistant to spread of infection.
The periosteum becomes more adherent, favoring pus to
decompress through the periosteum
The fluid formed seeks the path of least resistance from the
metaphysis
11.
12. Clinical Features
Age - greater in infants and toddlers than in older
children
Sex - boys > girls, usually 2 : 1
Signs and symptoms are highly dependent on the age of
the patient
The initial s/s are often subtle
The hallmark of osteomyelitis is fever plus localised bony
tenderness
Neonates may exhibit pseudoparalysis or pain with movement
of the affected extremity- Diaper changes
Half of neonates do not have fever and may not appear ill
13. Clinical Features…
Signs and symptoms
Older infants and children are more likely to have fever,
pain, and localizing signs such as edema, erythema,
and warmth
With involvement of the lower extremities, limp or refusal to
walk
Careful Physical examination may reveal focal bony
tenderness.
14. Distribution of Affected Bones in Acute Hematogenous
Osteomyelitis
• Usually only a single site
of bone or joint
involvement, the exception
is osteomyelitis in
neonates.
• Several bones are
infected in <10% of cases;
BONE %
Femur 23-28
Tibia 20-24
Humerus 5-13
Radius 5-6
Phalanx 3-5
Pelvis 4-8
Calcaneus 4-8
Ulna 4-8
Metatarsal ∼2
Vertebrae ∼2
Sacrum ∼2
Clavicle ∼2
Skull ∼1
15. Diagnosis
Children with acute bone pain and systemic signs of
sepsis should be considered to have acute hematogenous
Osteomyelitis until proved otherwise.
Diagnosis may be established if a patient fulfills two of
the following criteria:
1. Bone aspiration yield pus
2. Bacterial culture of bone or blood positive
3. Presence of the classical s/s of acute osteomyelitis
4. Radiographic changes typical for osteomyelitis.
16. LABORATORY FINDINGS
No specific laboratory tests.
Elevations in peripheral WBC, ESR, and CRP –
ESR-Nonspecific acute phase reactant
Increased 48-72 hrs
Increased in 90% of cases
Not affected by antibiotic tx
CRP- Increased in 98% of cases
Blood culture-
Positive in 30-50%
Decreased with antibiotic
48 hours to get most organisms
17. Radiology
Plain xray
Sensitivity 43-75%
Specificity 75-83%
Soft tissue swelling 48hrs
Periosteal reaction 5-7days
Osteolysis 7-14 days of infection(need 30-50% bone loss)
Magnetic Rsonance Imaging (MRI)
Computed Tomography (CT)
Radionuclide Study
18. Plain radiography
Bone changes - not seen for at least 10-14 days after the
onset of infection.
• Plain radiographs-normal in
the first 7 to 10 days
• Soft tissue swelling with loss
of the normal soft tissue
planes is seen before bone
changes become apparent
•Periosteal elevation or thickening -
new bone formation, pus, or
reactive edema from adjacent soft
tissue infection
19.
20.
21.
22. Radionuclide imaging…
Radionuclide imaging can be valuable in suspected bone
infections especially if multiple foci are suspected
Bone scans in acute haematogenous osteomyelitis have a
sensitivity of 84% to 100% and a specificity of 40% to
96%.
(N Susan Stott, Journal of Orthopaedic Surgery; Review
article: Paediatric bone and joint infection)
Can detect osteomyelitis within 24–48 hr after onset
of symptoms
The sensitivity in neonates is much lower owing to
poor bone mineralization
23. A) Plain radiographs of the ankle demonstrate deep soft tissue swelling inferior to
the medial malleolus. B) A technetium 99m bone scan shows increased uptake in
the distal tibia in the blood flow and bone uptake (four hour) phases.
Early Osteomyelitis, with pain and fever
Bone Scan…
Tc99
24-48hrs +ve
Decreased uptake
in early phase d/t
increased pressure
24. Ultrasound
can detect features of osteomyelitis several days earlier Xray
(predominately in children).
Acute osteomyelitis is recognized by elevation of the periosteum
by a hypoechoic layer
Soft tissue abscesses related to chronic osteomyelitis are
identified as hypoechoic or anechoic fluid collections, which may
extend around the bony contours.
Finally, US guided aspiration of joints
MRI
have comparable positive predictive value to radionuclide
imaging in acute osteomyelitis
particularly useful in the evaluation of vertebral osteomyelitis
and diskitis
25.
26.
27. Bone Aspiration
A bacteriologic diagnosis is made by culturing the
involved bone or pus, once a clinical diagnosis of acute
osteomyelitis is established.
Useful to determine whether an abscess is present.
The organism detection rate is increased to 75% to 80%
by aspiration of the affected bone
K. kingae may need to be identified by polymerase chain
reaction
Also useful in determining the future course of therapy
of the child
28. Differential Diagnosis
Trauma
Cellulitis
Myositis and pyomyositis
Leukemia
Neuroblastoma with bone involvement
Primary bone tumors (Ewing sarcoma)
Septic arthritis
29. Classification-
Acute hematogenous Osteomyelitis
Subacute hematogenous Osteomyelitis
Chronic Multifocal Osteomyelitis
Parameters
Subacute Acute
WBC Frequently normal Frequently elevated
ESR Frequently elevated Frequently elevated
Blood Cultures Rarely Positive 50% Positive
Bone Cultures 60% Positive 90% Positive
Localization Diaphysis, metaphysis,
epiphysis, cross physis
Metaphysis
Pain Mild to Moderate Severe
Systemic Illness No Fever, malaise
Loss of function No or minimal Marked
Prior antibiotics 30%-40% Occasional
Initial radiograph Frequently abnormal Bone normal
30. Brodie’s abscess, central oval lucency surrounded
By reactive sclerosis usually within or close to the
Metaphysis and the lesion may extend across the
physis.
31.
32. Garré sclerosing osteomyelitis, or chronic nonsuppurative sclerosing
osteomyelitis, is a form of chronic osteomyelitis. Mild inflammation and infection
lead to subperiosteal bone deposition. It is frequently asymptomatic. The
characteristic radiographic appearance is an area of periosteal proliferation
surrounded by successive layers of condensed cortical bone (arrows), described
as an onion skin appearance.
34. Duration of antibiotic therapy
Most infections- eg S. aureus, minimal duration is 21-28 days, if
prompt resolution of signs and symptoms (within 5-7 days)
and the CRP and ESR have normalized;
a total of 4-6 wk of therapy may be required.
For group A streptococcus, S. pneumoniae, or H. influenzae
type b, treatment duration maybe shorter.
A total of 7-10 postoperative days of treatment is adequate
for Pseudomonas osteochondritis when thorough curettage of
infected tissue has been performed.
Immunocompromised patients, mycobacterial or fungal
infection -require prolonged courses of therapy.
35. Indication of Surgical Treatment
Abscess collection (Subperiosteal , soft tissue, or
intramedullary)
Patient is not responding to appropriate antibiotic
therapy after a negative bone aspiration
(If a child with acute hematogenous osteomyelitis does not show
symptomatic improvement with decrease in swelling and
tenderness after 36-48 hrs of appropriate antibiotic treatment, the
bone should be aspirated again and consideration given to surgical
drainage)
In subacute Osteomyelitis when debridement is
necessary (granulation tissue within the cavity even
though no pus)
Radiographic lesion, sequestrum
36. Complications
Bone abscess
Bacteremia
Fracture
Loosening of the prosthetic implant
Overlying soft-tissue cellulitis
Draining soft-tissue sinus tracts
Growth disturbance
37. Prognosis
Improvement in signs and symptoms is rapid when timely
intervened.
Failure to improve or worsening by 72 hr requires review of
antibiotic therapy, the need for surgical intervention, or the
correctness of the diagnosis.
Recurrence of disease and development of chronic infection after
treatment occur in <10% of patients.
38. Septic Arthritis
An infection of a synovial joint which may occur in all age
groups in children
Has a specific infantile form affecting the infant from birth
to the first year of life
Relatively uncommon
39. Septic Arthritis
More common in infants and toddlers than in older
children
Half of all cases occur by 2 yr of age and three fourths of all
cases occur by 5 yr of age
Immuno-compromised hosts may have a higher incidence
41. Pathogenesis
Results from hematogenous seeding of the synovial space
Organisms enter the joint space by direct inoculation or
extension from a contiguous focus.
The synovial membrane (rich vascular supply and lacks a
basement membrane) providing an ideal environment for
hematogenous seeding.
Cytokines stimulate chemotaxis of neutrophils into the joint
space, proteolytic enzymes and elastases are released by
neutrophils cartilage damage
Increased pressure in joint space from can compromise the
vascular supply and induce pressure necrosis of the cartilage.
42. Pathogenesis….
May be associated with acute osteomyelitis esp in the
proximal femur
Routes of Infection-
Usually hematogenous
Trauma (penetrating injuries)
Post procedure (arthroscopy, prosthetic joint surgery, intra-
articular steroid injection, and orthopedic surgery)
43. Pathology
Acute inflammatory reaction.
Degradation of the articular cartilage begins within 8
hours of infection.
In neonates, metaphyseal osteomyelitis is often
associated with septic arthritis due to the presence of
transphyseal blood vessels that disappear by age 6 to 12
months
Sixty to 100% of neonates with septic arthritis will
have adjacent osteomyelitis
44. CLINICAL MANIFESTATIONS
Hot, swollen joint painful on any movement indicates a septic
arthritis until proved otherwise
In neonate, present as a pseudo-paralysis of one limb
Erythema and edema of the skin and soft tissue overlying
the site of infection are seen earlier in suppurative
arthritis than in osteomyelitis
Joint kept at position of ease.
45. Distribution of Affected Joints in Acute
Suppurative Arthritis
BONE %
Knee ∼40
Hip 22-40
Ankle 4-13
Elbow 8-12
Wrist 1-4
Shoulder ∼3
Interphalangeal <1
Metatarsal <1
Sacroiliac <1
Acromioclavicular <1
Metacarpal <1
Toe ∼1
46. Investigations
The investigations are similar to those required in
osteomyelitis
Blood culture
Aspiration of the joint fluid for Gram stain and culture,
definitive diagnostic technique and provides the optimal
specimen for culture to confirm the diagnosis
Elevations of WBCs, ESR, and CRP are very sensitive for joint
infections but are nonspecific
47. Synovial fluid analysis – Cell Counts >50,000-100,000 cells/mm3
generally
indicate an infectious process. Synovial fluid characteristics of septic
arthritis can suggest infection but are not sufficiently specific to exclude
infection.
Infected Fluid
Appearance / Clarity: Turbid to very turbid (N- Clear and colorless)
Viscosity: Greatly reduced (similar to water) (N-Very viscous)
Leukocytes / cubic cm: 15,000- >200,000 (N : Average 63; Range: 13-180.)
usually >50,000 and >100,000 is virtually diagnostic
Percent polymorphoneuclear: 50-100% (N-<25%)
90% almost always indicates infection
Mucin clot: Poor to very poor (N-Good)
Glucose level difference versus plasma: >40 mg/100ml less than plasma (N-
Within 10 mg/100ml of plasma concentration)
48. Differential Diagnosis
Depends on the joint or joints involved and the age of the
patient
Hip
toxic synovitis, Legg-Calvé-Perthes disease, slipped capital femoral
epiphysis, psoas abscess, and proximal femoral, pelvic, or vertebral
osteomyelitis as well as diskitis
Knee
distal femoral or proximal tibial osteomyelitis, pauciarticular
rheumatoid arthritis, and referred pain from the hip
Others like trauma, cellulitis, pyomyositis, sickle cell disease,
hemophilia, and Henoch-Schönlein purpura, also Reactive
arthritis, Acute rheumatic fever (multiple joints involved)
49.
50. Radiographic Evaluation
Plain Xrays
Widening of the joint capsule, soft-tissue edema, and obliteration of
normal fat lines
Ultrasonography
helpful in identifying effusions in deep joints such as the hip
may serve as an aid in performing hip aspiration
CT
MRI
Both are useful in confirming the presence of joint fluid in patients
with suspected osteoarthritis infections
MRI may be useful in excluding adjacent osteomyelitis
Radionuclide studies
In suppurative arthritis, three-phase imaging with technetium-99
methylene diphosphonate shows symmetric uptake on both sides of
the joint, limited to the bony structures adjacent to the joint
52. Hip joint
An infection of the hip joint is an emergency, as potential for
the development of avascular necrosis of the femoral head.
Aspiratiion through Fluroscopy guided
For joints other than the hip, daily aspirations of synovial fluid
may be required
• If fluid continues to accumulate after 4–5 days, arthrotomy is
needed
53. APView of Left Hip showing avascularnecrosis left head of
femur
54. In selected patients, obtaining a plain radiograph of the joint
before completing therapy can provide evidence (typically
periosteal new bone) of a previously unappreciated contiguous
site of osteomyelitis that would likely prolong antibiotic
treatment.
Oral antibiotics can be used to complete therapy once the
patient is afebrile for 48-72 hr and is clearly improving
55. Monitoring of patient
Failure to improve or worsening by 72 hr requires
review of the appropriateness of the antibiotic therapy
the need for surgical intervention
the correctness of the diagnosis
Failure of either of acute-phase reactants to follow the
usual course should raise concerns about the adequacy of
therapy
Recurrence of disease and development of chronic
infection after treatment occur in <10% of patients.
the behavior of boys might predispose them to traumatic events.
Local swelling and redness with osteomyelitis may mean that the infection has spread out of the metaphysis into the subperiosteal space
The x-ray of the distal tibia demonstrates periosteal elevation (left-image arrowhead) and osteolysis (right-image arrowhead) findings consistent with osteomyelitis.
The x-ray shown demonstrates osteomyelitis of the metacarpal head (arrow) secondary to a closed-fist injury (courtesy of David Effron).
Radiographic evidence of bone destruction finally becomes apparent by 10 to 21 days.
Osteomyelitis causes increased vascularity, inflammation, and increased osteoblastic activity, resulting in an increased concentration of 99mTc.
Plain radiographs of the knee are unremarkable. B) T1 weighted MRI demonstrates marked decrease in signal intensity in the medial metaphysis and epiphysis of the distal femur. There is some involvement of the soft tissue. C) These findings are more pronounced in a T1 weighted MRI with gadolinium.
Patients with sickle cell disease are at increased risk for bacterial infection, and osteomyelitis is the second most common infection. S aureus is still the most common microorganism responsible for infection, but Salmonella and Serratia species and Proteus mirabilis represent a disproportionate share compared with the general populace. The T1-weighted MRI shown demonstrates decreased signal within the metatarsal (arrow) in a patient with sickle cell disease due to osteomyelitis.
MRI is the best imaging study for osteomyelitis (yellow arrow), and may also reveal diskitis (blue arrow), abscess, and/or involvement of the cord (red arrow).
Course of therapy – if no pus(cellulitis) – only antibiotics, if pus – surgical drainage required
Radiographs show a central oval lucency surrounded by dense reactive sclerosis usually within or close to the metaphysis and the lesion may extend across the physis
Chronic abscess resulting from incomplete resolution of acute osteomyelitis and isolation of the infection by sclerotic bone
Brodie abscess
A Brodie abscess is a subacute osteomyelitis that occurs in children and young adults from hematogenous spread. Disease onset is usually insidious with only mild symptoms, usually pain or ache, and no systemic response. The delay in disease progression is thought to be secondary to a strong host-pathogen response. It most commonly involves the distal tibia and appears as a rounded area of lucency (arrow). It may progress to a chronic localized abscess. Treatment with antibiotics or surgery usually results in a complete cure, but there is controversy over when to proceed with procedural intervention.
Individualized depending on the organism isolated and clinical course.
According to Maheshwori, Essential Pediatrics
- &lt;48 hr IV cefotax+ Amik for 2 weeks then Oral
-&gt;48hr – Surgical drainage
Sequelae of skeletal infections might not become apparent for months or years
long-term follow-up is necessary
Proteolytic enzymes released from the synovial cells and chondrocytes also contribute to destruction of cartilage and synovium.
Bacterial hyaluronidase breaks down the hyaluronic acid in the synovial fluid, making the fluid less viscous and diminishing its ability to lubricate and protect the joint cartilage.
Synovial and cartilage destruction results from a combination of proteolytic enzymes and mechanical factors.
manifested by glycosaminoglycan and collagen breakdown mediated via polymorphonuclear cells and cytokines secreted by the chondrocytes
Joints of the lower extremity constitute 75% of all cases of suppurative arthritis. The elbow, wrist, and shoulder joints are involved in about 25% of cases, and small joints are uncommonly infected. Suppurative infections of the hip, shoulder, elbow, and ankle in older infants and children may be associated with an adjacent osteomyelitis of the proximal femur, proximal humerus, proximal radius, and distal tibia because the metaphysis extends intra-articularly
Quantity: Average is 1.1cc. Range: 0.13 to 3.5 cc.
Appearance / Clarity: Clear and colorless (one should be able to read a newspaper through the fluid)
Viscosity: Very viscous
Cell count: Average 63; Range: 13-180.
Differential:
Red blood cells: Zero
Percent polymorphonuclear leukocytes: Average: 6.5%; Range 0-25
Lymphocytes: Average: 24.6%; Range 0-78
Monocytes: Average: 6.5%; Range 0-25
Mucin clot: Good
Crystals : None
Uric acid: Same as in plasma
Glucose level difference versus plasma: Within 10 mg/100ml of plasma concentration