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Chapter 3
1.
Chapter 3
Making Hard Structuring Decisions Decisions R. T. Clemen, T. Reilly Draft: Version 1 Making Hard Decisions Chapter 3 – Structuring Decisions Slide 1 of 49 R. T. Clemen, T. Reilly Lecture Notes by: J.R. van Dorp and T.A. Mazzuchi COPYRIGHT © 2006 http://www.seas.gwu.edu/~dorpjr/ by GWU
2.
Introduction
Suppose elements of Decision Problem (DP) are available, i.e.: •Objectives that apply to the decision context •Immediate decision and subsequent decision(s) •Alternatives for each decision •Uncertain elements (events) •You know how to evaluate consequences How does one proceed structuring the DP? STEP 1: Filter & Operationalize the Objectives Draft: Version 1 •Classify objectives as means or fundamental objectives •Classify how to measure fundamental objectives Making Hard Decisions Chapter 3 – Structuring Decisions Slide 2 of 49 R. T. Clemen, T. Reilly Lecture Notes by: J.R. van Dorp and T.A. Mazzuchi COPYRIGHT © 2006 http://www.seas.gwu.edu/~dorpjr/ by GWU
3.
Introduction
STEP 2: Structure the elements in a logical framework •Structure Logic and time sequence between decisions •Structure Logic (dependence) between the uncertain events •Structure time sequence of uncertain events related to the sequence of decisions •Represent Logic by using Influence Diagrams or Decision Trees STEP 3: Fill in the Details, e.g.; •Give precise (unambiguous) definitions of decisions & uncertain events •Specify probability distributions for the uncertain events through a combination of data analysis & expert judgment. Draft: Version 1 •Specify precisely (unambiguous) how consequences are measured and formalize trade off between objectives. Making Hard Decisions Chapter 3 – Structuring Decisions Slide 3 of 49 R. T. Clemen, T. Reilly Lecture Notes by: J.R. van Dorp and T.A. Mazzuchi COPYRIGHT © 2006 http://www.seas.gwu.edu/~dorpjr/ by GWU
4.
Introduction
Comment with Respect to STEP 1: Identifying objectives is Creative Process 1. Develop a wish list. What do you want? What should you want? 2. Identify alternatives. What is the perfect alternative, a terrible alternative, some reasonable alternatives, what is good or bad about each? 3. Consider problems and shortcomings. What is wrong or right with your organization? What needs fixing? 4. Predict consequences. What has occurred that was good or bad? What might occur that you care about? 5. Identify goals, constraints, and guidelines. What are your aspirations? What limitations are placed on you? 6. Consider different perspectives. What would your competitor or constituency be concerned about? At some time in the future, what would concern you? 7. Determine strategic objectives. What are your ultimate objectives? What are your values that are absolutely fundamental? Draft: Version 1 8. Determine generic objectives. What objectives do you have for your customers, your employees, your shareholders, yourself? What environmental, social, economic, or health and safety objectives are important? Source: Keeny, R.L. (1994) " Creativity in Decision Making with Value-Focused Thinking," Sloan Management Review, Sumer, 33-41 Making Hard Decisions Chapter 3 – Structuring Decisions Slide 4 of 49 R. T. Clemen, T. Reilly Lecture Notes by: J.R. van Dorp and T.A. Mazzuchi COPYRIGHT © 2006 http://www.seas.gwu.edu/~dorpjr/ by GWU
5.
STEP 1: Filter
& Operationalize Objectives Classify objectives as means or fundamental objectives Maximize Safety Maximize Use of Minimize Accidents Vehicle-Safety Features Motivate Purchase of Maintain Maximize Safety Features Vehicles Driving Quality on Vehicles Properly Draft: Version 1 Require Educate Public Enforce Have Reasonable Minimize Driving under Safety Features about Safety Traffic Laws Traffic Laws Influence of Alcohol Example of Means Objective Network Making Hard Decisions Chapter 3 – Structuring Decisions Slide 5 of 49 R. T. Clemen, T. Reilly Lecture Notes by: J.R. van Dorp and T.A. Mazzuchi COPYRIGHT © 2006 http://www.seas.gwu.edu/~dorpjr/ by GWU
6.
STEP 1: Filter
& Operationalize Objectives Classify objectives as means or fundamental objectives Maximize Safety Minimize Minimize Minimize Loss of Life Serious Injuries Minor Injuries Adults Children Adults Children Adults Children Draft: Version 1 Example of Fundamental Objective Hierarchy Making Hard Decisions Chapter 3 – Structuring Decisions Slide 6 of 49 R. T. Clemen, T. Reilly Lecture Notes by: J.R. van Dorp and T.A. Mazzuchi COPYRIGHT © 2006 http://www.seas.gwu.edu/~dorpjr/ by GWU
7.
STEP 1: Filter
& Operationalize Objectives Questions to aid in classifying objectives Fundamental Means Objectives Objectives To Move: Downward in Hierarchy: Away from Fundamental Objectives: Ask: "What do you mean by that?" "How could you achieve this" To Move: Upward in Hierarchy: Toward Fundamental Objectives: Ask: "Of what more general objective is this an aspect?" "Why is that important?" Draft: Version 1 Decision Problems are evaluated using only the Fundamental Objective Hierarchy Making Hard Decisions Chapter 3 – Structuring Decisions Slide 7 of 49 R. T. Clemen, T. Reilly Lecture Notes by: J.R. van Dorp and T.A. Mazzuchi COPYRIGHT © 2006 http://www.seas.gwu.edu/~dorpjr/ by GWU
8.
STEP 1: Filter
& Operationalize Objectives Getting the decision context right: •Enlarging Decision Context may increase the number of objectives and alternatives that are relevant. •Decreasing the Decision Context may cause current relevant objectives or alternatives to become irrelevant. Think of Example: Travel from A to B Comfortably Three questions need to be answered affirmatively: •Are you addressing the right problem? Draft: Version 1 •Can you make the decision? (Decision Ownership) •Do you have the resources (Time & Money) to analyze the DP in the current decision context? Making Hard Decisions Chapter 3 – Structuring Decisions Slide 8 of 49 R. T. Clemen, T. Reilly Lecture Notes by: J.R. van Dorp and T.A. Mazzuchi COPYRIGHT © 2006 http://www.seas.gwu.edu/~dorpjr/ by GWU
9.
Step 2: Structure
Elements in a Logical Framework Investment example: Venture Performance Return on Invest? Investment Draft: Version 1 Making Hard Decisions Chapter 3 – Structuring Decisions Slide 9 of 49 R. T. Clemen, T. Reilly Lecture Notes by: J.R. van Dorp and T.A. Mazzuchi COPYRIGHT © 2006 http://www.seas.gwu.edu/~dorpjr/ by GWU
10.
Step 2: Structure
Elements in a Logical Framework Maximize Overall Satisfaction Fundamental Objective Hierarchy Invest in Return on Computer Industry Investment Venture Invest? Performance Invest in Return on Computer Investment Industry Influence Diagram Draft: Version 1 Overall Satisfaction Making Hard Decisions Chapter 3 – Structuring Decisions Slide 10 of 49 R. T. Clemen, T. Reilly Lecture Notes by: J.R. van Dorp and T.A. Mazzuchi COPYRIGHT © 2006 http://www.seas.gwu.edu/~dorpjr/ by GWU
11.
Step 2: Structure
Elements in a Logical Framework Influence Diagrams 1. Elements are represented by: Decision Nodes: Invest? Venture Chance Nodes: Performance Draft: Version 1 Return on Consequence Nodes: Investment Making Hard Decisions Chapter 3 – Structuring Decisions Slide 11 of 49 R. T. Clemen, T. Reilly Lecture Notes by: J.R. van Dorp and T.A. Mazzuchi COPYRIGHT © 2006 http://www.seas.gwu.edu/~dorpjr/ by GWU
12.
Step 2: Structure
Elements in a Logical Framework 2. Logical relationships are represented by arrows: Indicates Sequence; points only to Decision Nodes Indicates Dependence; points only to Chance Nodes & Consequence Nodes A B C D Decision A is made Outcome of C is known before Decision B before Decision D is made E F G H Draft: Version 1 Decision E is relevant Outcome of G is relevant to assessing probabilities to assessing probabilities of outcomes of F of outcomes of H Making Hard Decisions Chapter 3 – Structuring Decisions Slide 12 of 49 R. T. Clemen, T. Reilly Lecture Notes by: J.R. van Dorp and T.A. Mazzuchi COPYRIGHT © 2006 http://www.seas.gwu.edu/~dorpjr/ by GWU
13.
Step 2: Structure
Elements in a Logical Framework • It is important to note here that we deviate from the convention in the book that does not distinguish between sequence arcs and influence arcs. • This distinction is made here only for teaching purposes. Once one is comfortable with the differences between these arcs and their interpretations one could use solid arcs throughout the influence diagram Comments on Influence Diagrams: •Influence diagram captures current state of knowledge •An influence diagram should NEVER contain cycles Draft: Version 1 •Interpreting an influence diagram is generally easy •Creating influence diagrams is difficult Making Hard Decisions Chapter 3 – Structuring Decisions Slide 13 of 49 R. T. Clemen, T. Reilly Lecture Notes by: J.R. van Dorp and T.A. Mazzuchi COPYRIGHT © 2006 http://www.seas.gwu.edu/~dorpjr/ by GWU
14.
Step 2: Basic
Influence Diagrams Basic Risky Decision • One should be able Outcomes to identify basic Business Wild Success influence diagrams Result Flop and modify/combine them to match specific problems • Involves one decision and one uncertain event Investment Return on Choice Investment Draft: Version 1 Choice Business Result Return Alternatives Savings Wild Success 2200 Savings Flop 2200 Business Business Wild Success 5000 Flop 0 Making Hard Decisions Chapter 3 – Structuring Decisions Slide 14 of 49 R. T. Clemen, T. Reilly Lecture Notes by: J.R. van Dorp and T.A. Mazzuchi COPYRIGHT © 2006 http://www.seas.gwu.edu/~dorpjr/ by GWU
15.
Step 2: Basic
Influence Diagrams Outcomes Hurricane Hits Miami Forecast Path Misses Miami Forecast Imperfect Information: "Hits Miami" • Involves one decision and "Misses Miami" two uncertain events at the time of the Decision Analysis. • One uncertain event is known at the time that the immediate decision is made. Decision Consequence • Solving the influence diagram results in one optimal decision for each possible outcome of the information source. Alternatives Draft: Version 1 Consequence Evacuate Choice Outcome Risk Cost Stay Evacuate Hits Miami Low Risk High Cost Misses Miami Low Risk High Cost Stay Hits Miami High Risk High Cost Misses Miami Low Risk Low Cost Making Hard Decisions Chapter 3 – Structuring Decisions Slide 15 of 49 R. T. Clemen, T. Reilly Lecture Notes by: J.R. van Dorp and T.A. Mazzuchi COPYRIGHT © 2006 http://www.seas.gwu.edu/~dorpjr/ by GWU
16.
Step 2: Basic
Influence Diagrams Sequential Decisions: Hurricane Forecast Path Wait for Evacuate? Forecast? Draft: Version 1 Consequence Hurricane example Making Hard Decisions Chapter 3 – Structuring Decisions Slide 16 of 49 R. T. Clemen, T. Reilly Lecture Notes by: J.R. van Dorp and T.A. Mazzuchi COPYRIGHT © 2006 http://www.seas.gwu.edu/~dorpjr/ by GWU
17.
Step 2: Basic
Influence Diagrams Sequential Decisions: Forecast Weather Forecast Weather Forecast Weather Day 1 Day 1 Day 2 Day 2 Day n Day n Protect Protect Protect Day 1? Day 2? Day n? Cash Flow Cash Flow Cash Flow Day 1 Day 2 Day n Draft: Version 1 Net Present Value Farmer example Making Hard Decisions Chapter 3 – Structuring Decisions Slide 17 of 49 R. T. Clemen, T. Reilly Lecture Notes by: J.R. van Dorp and T.A. Mazzuchi COPYRIGHT © 2006 http://www.seas.gwu.edu/~dorpjr/ by GWU
18.
Step 2: Basic
Influence Diagrams Intermediate calculations for additional clarity: Revenue Cost Version 1 Introduce Profit Product? Units Fixed Variable Price? Sold Cost Cost Version 2 Draft: Version 1 Introduce Profit Product? Making Hard Decisions Chapter 3 – Structuring Decisions Slide 18 of 49 R. T. Clemen, T. Reilly Lecture Notes by: J.R. van Dorp and T.A. Mazzuchi COPYRIGHT © 2006 http://www.seas.gwu.edu/~dorpjr/ by GWU
19.
Step 2: Basic
Influence Diagrams Intermediate calculations for additional clarity: Units Fixed Variable Price? Sold Cost Cost Revenue Cost Draft: Version 1 Introduce Product? Profit Version 3 Making Hard Decisions Chapter 3 – Structuring Decisions Slide 19 of 49 R. T. Clemen, T. Reilly Lecture Notes by: J.R. van Dorp and T.A. Mazzuchi COPYRIGHT © 2006 http://www.seas.gwu.edu/~dorpjr/ by GWU
20.
Step 2: Basic
Influence Diagrams Intermediate calculations reflecting Fundamental Objective Hierarchy: Bomb-Detection System Choice Detection Time to Passenger Cost Effectiveness Implement Acceptance Draft: Version 1 Overall Performance Making Hard Decisions Chapter 3 – Structuring Decisions Slide 20 of 49 R. T. Clemen, T. Reilly Lecture Notes by: J.R. van Dorp and T.A. Mazzuchi COPYRIGHT © 2006 http://www.seas.gwu.edu/~dorpjr/ by GWU
21.
Step 2: Building
an Influence Diagrams 1. List all the decisions. 2. Draw sequence arcs between decisions. 3. Identify the consequence node. 4. Breakdown the consequence node using the FOH. 5. Draw relevance arcs from decision nodes to the intermediate calculation nodes. 6. List all the uncertainty nodes. 7. Draw the relevance arcs between uncertainty nodes. 8. Draw the sequence arcs from uncertainty nodes to the decision nodes. 9. Draw the relevance arcs from the decision nodes to the Draft: Version 1 uncertainty nodes. 10. Draw the relevance arcs from the uncertainty nodes to the intermediate calculation nodes. Making Hard Decisions Chapter 3 – Structuring Decisions Slide 21 of 49 R. T. Clemen, T. Reilly Lecture Notes by: J.R. van Dorp and T.A. Mazzuchi COPYRIGHT © 2006 http://www.seas.gwu.edu/~dorpjr/ by GWU
22.
Step 2: Building
an Influence Diagram All details (outcomes, choices, payoff) should be developed in a tabular format for each node in the influence diagram. Common Mistakes: •See influence diagrams as flow charts. •Many chance nodes going into the immediate decision node to reflect uncertainty. Draft: Version 1 •The inclusion of cycles. Making Hard Decisions Chapter 3 – Structuring Decisions Slide 22 of 49 R. T. Clemen, T. Reilly Lecture Notes by: J.R. van Dorp and T.A. Mazzuchi COPYRIGHT © 2006 http://www.seas.gwu.edu/~dorpjr/ by GWU
23.
Building an Influence
Diagram: Example Toxic Chemicals and the EPA The Environmental Protection Agency often must decide whether to permit the use of an economically beneficial chemical that may be carcinogenic (cancer-causing). Furthermore, the decision often must be made without perfect information about either the long-term benefits or health hazards. Alternative courses of action are to permit the use of the chemical, restrict its use, or to ban it al together. Tests can be run to learn something about the carcinogenic potential, and survey data can give an indication of the extent to which people are exposed when they do use the chemical. These pieces of information are both important in making the decision. For example, if the chemical is only mildly toxic and the exposure rate is Draft: Version 1 minimal, then restricted use may be reasonable. On the other hand, if the chemical is only mildly toxic but the exposure rate is high, then banning its use may be imperative. Making Hard Decisions Chapter 3 – Structuring Decisions Slide 23 of 49 R. T. Clemen, T. Reilly Lecture Notes by: J.R. van Dorp and T.A. Mazzuchi COPYRIGHT © 2006 http://www.seas.gwu.edu/~dorpjr/ by GWU
24.
Building an Influence
Diagram: Example Toxic Chemicals and the EPA STEPS 1 - 5 Economic Usage Value Decision Net Value Cancer Cost Draft: Version 1 Making Hard Decisions Chapter 3 – Structuring Decisions Slide 24 of 49 R. T. Clemen, T. Reilly Lecture Notes by: J.R. van Dorp and T.A. Mazzuchi COPYRIGHT © 2006 http://www.seas.gwu.edu/~dorpjr/ by GWU
25.
Building an Influence
Diagram: Example Toxic Chemicals and the EPA STEPS 6 - 7 Economic Usage Value Decision Survey Net Value Cancer Laboratory Cost Test Exposure Rate Draft: Version 1 Carcinogenic Potential Making Hard Decisions Chapter 3 – Structuring Decisions Slide 25 of 49 R. T. Clemen, T. Reilly Lecture Notes by: J.R. van Dorp and T.A. Mazzuchi COPYRIGHT © 2006 http://www.seas.gwu.edu/~dorpjr/ by GWU
26.
Building an Influence
Diagram: Example Toxic Chemicals and the EPA STEPS 9 - 10 Economic Usage Value Decision Survey Net Value Cancer Laboratory Cost Test Exposure Rate Draft: Version 1 Carcinogenic Potential Making Hard Decisions Chapter 3 – Structuring Decisions Slide 26 of 49 R. T. Clemen, T. Reilly Lecture Notes by: J.R. van Dorp and T.A. Mazzuchi COPYRIGHT © 2006 http://www.seas.gwu.edu/~dorpjr/ by GWU
27.
Building an Influence
Diagram: Example Test Analyze and Fix (TAAF) We are deciding on whether or not to release a new product. The product reliability, that is, the probability that the product functions satisfactorily, is a main driver in profits that may be derived from the product. We may decide to release the product immediately based on our best current assessment of the product reliability or test the product. A test consists of selecting a single product and seeing if it performs its required task. If it does not, the product is redesigned using the test results and a fixed cost for redesign is incurred. This redesign may or may not improve the product reliability. After the redesign we may decide to release the redesigned product or test the redesigned product. If the redesigned product does not perform its task, the redesigned product will be redesigned using the latest test results, etc. This cycle continues until Draft: Version 1 the time has come that the final decision to release or not to release has to be made. The testing and re-design takes one week (regardless of the outcome of the test) and we have two weeks to make the final decision. Assume that the product reliability and the cost of testing affect the profits. Making Hard Decisions Chapter 3 – Structuring Decisions Slide 27 of 49 R. T. Clemen, T. Reilly Lecture Notes by: J.R. van Dorp and T.A. Mazzuchi COPYRIGHT © 2006 http://www.seas.gwu.edu/~dorpjr/ by GWU
28.
Building an Influence
Diagram: Example Test Analyze and Fix (TAAF) Final Release 1? Release 2? Release? Draft: Version 1 STEPS 1 - 3 FINAL PROFITS Making Hard Decisions Chapter 3 – Structuring Decisions Slide 28 of 49 R. T. Clemen, T. Reilly Lecture Notes by: J.R. van Dorp and T.A. Mazzuchi COPYRIGHT © 2006 http://www.seas.gwu.edu/~dorpjr/ by GWU
29.
Building an Influence
Diagram: Example Test Analyze and Fix (TAAF) Final Release 1? Release 2? Release? Profit if Cost of Profit if Cost of Profit if released Test 1 & released Test 2 & released after 1 Redesign after 2 Redisgn after final Draft: Version 1 STEPS 4 - 5 FINAL PROFITS Making Hard Decisions Chapter 3 – Structuring Decisions Slide 29 of 49 R. T. Clemen, T. Reilly Lecture Notes by: J.R. van Dorp and T.A. Mazzuchi COPYRIGHT © 2006 http://www.seas.gwu.edu/~dorpjr/ by GWU
30.
Building an Influence
Diagram: Example Test Analyze and Fix (TAAF) Current Reliability Outcome Reliability Outcome Reliability after Test 2 Test 1 after Test 1 Test 2 Final Release 1? Release 2? Release? Profit if Cost of Profit if Cost of Profit if released Test 1 & released Test 2 & released after 1 Redesign after 2 Redisgn after final Draft: Version 1 STEPS 6 - 7 FINAL PROFITS Making Hard Decisions Chapter 3 – Structuring Decisions Slide 30 of 49 R. T. Clemen, T. Reilly Lecture Notes by: J.R. van Dorp and T.A. Mazzuchi COPYRIGHT © 2006 http://www.seas.gwu.edu/~dorpjr/ by GWU
31.
Building an Influence
Diagram: Example Test Analyze and Fix (TAAF) Current Reliability Outcome Reliability Outcome Reliability after Test 2 Test 1 after Test 1 Test 2 Final Release 1? Release 2? Release? Profit if Cost of Profit if Cost of Profit if released Test 1 & released Test 2 & released after 1 Redesign after 2 Redisgn after final Draft: Version 1 STEP 8 FINAL PROFITS Making Hard Decisions Chapter 3 – Structuring Decisions Slide 31 of 49 R. T. Clemen, T. Reilly Lecture Notes by: J.R. van Dorp and T.A. Mazzuchi COPYRIGHT © 2006 http://www.seas.gwu.edu/~dorpjr/ by GWU
32.
Building an Influence
Diagram: Example Test Analyze and Fix (TAAF) Current Reliability Outcome Reliability Outcome Reliability after Test 2 Test 1 after Test 1 Test 2 Final Release 1? Release 2? Release? Profit if Cost of Profit if Cost of Profit if released Test 1 & released Test 2 & released after 1 Redesign after 2 Redisgn after final Draft: Version 1 STEPS 9 - 10 FINAL PROFITS Making Hard Decisions Chapter 3 – Structuring Decisions Slide 32 of 49 R. T. Clemen, T. Reilly Lecture Notes by: J.R. van Dorp and T.A. Mazzuchi COPYRIGHT © 2006 http://www.seas.gwu.edu/~dorpjr/ by GWU
33.
Step 2: Structure
Elements in a Logical Framework Investment example: Return on Investment Do not Invest Interest @ 5% Invest? Failure Funds Lost Invest Venture Performance Success Large Return Draft: Version 1 Making Hard Decisions Chapter 3 – Structuring Decisions Slide 33 of 49 R. T. Clemen, T. Reilly Lecture Notes by: J.R. van Dorp and T.A. Mazzuchi COPYRIGHT © 2006 http://www.seas.gwu.edu/~dorpjr/ by GWU
34.
Step 2: Structure
Elements in a Logical Framework Decision trees and fundamentals-objective hierarchy: Overall Performance Detection Time to Passenger Cost Effectiveness Implement Acceptance System 1 System 2 System 3 System 4 System 5 Draft: Version 1 Decision Trees reveal more detail than Influence Diagrams Making Hard Decisions Chapter 3 – Structuring Decisions Slide 34 of 49 R. T. Clemen, T. Reilly Lecture Notes by: J.R. van Dorp and T.A. Mazzuchi COPYRIGHT © 2006 http://www.seas.gwu.edu/~dorpjr/ by GWU
35.
Step 2: Structure
Elements in a Logical Framework Do not Invest Elements are represented by: Decision Nodes: Invest? Invest Failure Venture Chance Nodes: Performance Success Maximize Overall Satisfaction Invest in Return Computer on Do not Invest Industry Investment Draft: Version 1 Consequences: Invest? Invest Making Hard Decisions Chapter 3 – Structuring Decisions Slide 35 of 49 R. T. Clemen, T. Reilly Lecture Notes by: J.R. van Dorp and T.A. Mazzuchi COPYRIGHT © 2006 http://www.seas.gwu.edu/~dorpjr/ by GWU
36.
Step 2: Structure
Elements in a Logical Framework 1. Decision Trees are evaluated from left to right 2. Only one alternative can be chosen after each decision node 3. Outcome from a chance event need to be complete, i.e. not more than one outcome can happen at the same time and one outcome will happen. 4. Decision Trees represent all possible future scenarios 5. Think of nodes as occurring in time sequence Draft: Version 1 6. If for chance nodes the order is not important then use the easiest interpretation. Making Hard Decisions Chapter 3 – Structuring Decisions Slide 36 of 49 R. T. Clemen, T. Reilly Lecture Notes by: J.R. van Dorp and T.A. Mazzuchi COPYRIGHT © 2006 http://www.seas.gwu.edu/~dorpjr/ by GWU
37.
Step 2: Basic
Decision Trees The Basic Risk Decision Increase Power Run for Reelection U.S. Representative (Intermediate) Win U.S. Senator (Best) Run for Senate Lose Lawyer (Worst) Draft: Version 1 Making Hard Decisions Chapter 3 – Structuring Decisions Slide 37 of 49 R. T. Clemen, T. Reilly Lecture Notes by: J.R. van Dorp and T.A. Mazzuchi COPYRIGHT © 2006 http://www.seas.gwu.edu/~dorpjr/ by GWU
38.
Step 2: Basic
Decision Trees The Double Risk Dilemma Increase Power Win U.S. Representative (Second-Best) Run for Reelection Lose Small-Time Lawyer (Worst) Win U.S. Senator (Best) Run for Senate Lose Draft: Version 1 Big-Time Lawyer (Okay) Making Hard Decisions Chapter 3 – Structuring Decisions Slide 38 of 49 R. T. Clemen, T. Reilly Lecture Notes by: J.R. van Dorp and T.A. Mazzuchi COPYRIGHT © 2006 http://www.seas.gwu.edu/~dorpjr/ by GWU
39.
Step 2: Basic
Decision Trees Rang-of-Risk Dilemma Maximize Court Outcome Accept Settlement Known Amount Settle? Highest Reject Settlement Amount of Court Award Lowest Draft: Version 1 Making Hard Decisions Chapter 3 – Structuring Decisions Slide 39 of 49 R. T. Clemen, T. Reilly Lecture Notes by: J.R. van Dorp and T.A. Mazzuchi COPYRIGHT © 2006 http://www.seas.gwu.edu/~dorpjr/ by GWU
40.
Step 2: Basic
Decision Trees Maximize Overall Imperfect Information Satisfaction Risk Cost Evacuate Forecast: Safe High “Hurricane Hits Hurricane Hits Miami” Miami Danger Low Stay Hurricane Misses Miami Safe Low Evacuate Forecast: Safe High “Hurricane Misses Miami” Hurricane Hits Draft: Version 1 Miami Danger Low Stay Hurricane Misses Miami Safe Low Making Hard Decisions Chapter 3 – Structuring Decisions Slide 40 of 49 R. T. Clemen, T. Reilly Lecture Notes by: J.R. van Dorp and T.A. Mazzuchi COPYRIGHT © 2006 http://www.seas.gwu.edu/~dorpjr/ by GWU
41.
Step 2: Basic
Decision Trees Maximize Overall Satisfaction Sequential Decisions Risk Cost Evacuate Now Safe High Evacuate Forecast: Safe High “Hurricane Hits Hurricane Hits Miami” Miami Low Danger Stay Hurricane Misses Miami Safe Low Evacuate Forecast: Safe High “Hurricane Misses Draft: Version 1 Miami” Hurricane Hits Miami Danger Low Stay Hurricane Misses Miami Safe Low Making Hard Decisions Chapter 3 – Structuring Decisions Slide 41 of 49 R. T. Clemen, T. Reilly Lecture Notes by: J.R. van Dorp and T.A. Mazzuchi COPYRIGHT © 2006 http://www.seas.gwu.edu/~dorpjr/ by GWU
42.
Step 2: Basic
Decision Trees Sequential Decisions Forecast: Decision: Weather: Forecast: Decision: Weather: Day 1 Day 1 Day 1 Day 2 Day 2 Day 2 ... Net Present Value Draft: Version 1 Making Hard Decisions Chapter 3 – Structuring Decisions Slide 42 of 49 R. T. Clemen, T. Reilly Lecture Notes by: J.R. van Dorp and T.A. Mazzuchi COPYRIGHT © 2006 http://www.seas.gwu.edu/~dorpjr/ by GWU
43.
Decision Trees and
Influence Diagrams Compared • When DP is complex decision trees, may get too large for presentation. • For presentation a DP influence diagram are superior. • Decision trees show more detail, hence are more useful for in-depth understanding. • Influence diagrams are better in the structuring phase. • For sensitivity analysis decision trees may be better. • Influence diagram present the relevance between uncertainty nodes, decision trees do not. • Influence diagrams and decision trees are isomorphic. • Each technique has its strength and weakness. Using both may work complementary. Draft: Version 1 • Both must pass the clarity test. No misunderstanding should be possible about the basic key elements in the decision problem. Making Hard Decisions Chapter 3 – Structuring Decisions Slide 43 of 49 R. T. Clemen, T. Reilly Lecture Notes by: J.R. van Dorp and T.A. Mazzuchi COPYRIGHT © 2006 http://www.seas.gwu.edu/~dorpjr/ by GWU
44.
Step 3: Fill
in the Details 1. Define the elements in the decision model clearly Consider EPA Example: Objective: Minimize the social cost of cancer. Definition?: •Incremental Lives Lost ? •Incremental cases of cancer ? •Incremental cases of treatable cancer ? Uncertain Event: Rate of exposure. Definition?: •Number of people exposed to the chemical per day ? •Ingesting a critical quantity ? Draft: Version 1 •Skin contact ? Making Hard Decisions Chapter 3 – Structuring Decisions Slide 44 of 49 R. T. Clemen, T. Reilly Lecture Notes by: J.R. van Dorp and T.A. Mazzuchi COPYRIGHT © 2006 http://www.seas.gwu.edu/~dorpjr/ by GWU
45.
Step 3: Fill
in the Details 1. Define the elements in the decision model clearly Consider EPA Example: Objective: Minimize the social cost of cancer. Definition?: •Incremental Lives Lost ? •Incremental cases of cancer ? •Incremental cases of treatable cancer ? Uncertain Event: Rate of exposure. Definition?: •Number of people exposed to the chemical per day ? •Ingesting a critical quantity ? Draft: Version 1 •Skin contact ? Making Hard Decisions Chapter 3 – Structuring Decisions Slide 45 of 49 R. T. Clemen, T. Reilly Lecture Notes by: J.R. van Dorp and T.A. Mazzuchi COPYRIGHT © 2006 http://www.seas.gwu.edu/~dorpjr/ by GWU
46.
Step 3: Fill
in the Details 2. Asses Cash Flows and Probabilities Sell Licence TRUE 70.00% $25,000,000 $23,000,000 Patent Awarded 70.0% Decision 0 23000000 High 25.0% 0.00% $55,000,000 $43,000,000 Develop in-house FALSE Demand -$10,000,000 22900000 Medium 55.0% 0.00% $33,000,000 $21,000,000 Low 20.0% 0.00% $15,000,000 $3,000,000 Continue Development TRUE Chance -$2,000,000 15500000 No Patent 30.0% 30.00% 0 -$2,000,000 Decision Draft: Version 1 15500000 Stop Development FALSE 0.00% $0.00 $0 Making Hard Decisions Chapter 3 – Structuring Decisions Slide 46 of 49 R. T. Clemen, T. Reilly Lecture Notes by: J.R. van Dorp and T.A. Mazzuchi COPYRIGHT © 2006 http://www.seas.gwu.edu/~dorpjr/ by GWU
47.
Step 3: Fill
in the Details 3. Defining Measurement Scales for Fundamental Objectives Objectives are measured in attributes, e.g: Dollars, Hours, Percentage 1. Objectives with natural attribute scale OBJECTIVE ATTRIBUTE Maximize profit Money ( for example dollars) Maximize Revenue Money ( for example dollars) Maximize Savings Money ( for example dollars) Minimize Cost Money ( for example dollars) Maximize Market Share Percentage Maximize Rate of Return Percentage Draft: Version 1 Maximize proximity Miles, minutes Maximize Fuel Efficiency Miles per gallon Maximize time with friends Days, Hours Minimize hypertension Inches Hg (Blood pressure) Making Hard Decisions Chapter 3 – Structuring Decisions Slide 47 of 49 R. T. Clemen, T. Reilly Lecture Notes by: J.R. van Dorp and T.A. Mazzuchi COPYRIGHT © 2006 http://www.seas.gwu.edu/~dorpjr/ by GWU
48.
Step 3: Fill
in the Details 2. Objectives with no natural attribute scale Example: Max Quality. How does on measure it? Solution: Define an attribute scale: BEST, BETTER, SATISFACTORY, WORSE, WORST. Each category needs to pass the Clarity Test: • An attribute Scale passes the Clarity Test if an outside candidate using your definition can allocate Draft: Version 1 specimens to the identified categories. Making Hard Decisions Chapter 3 – Structuring Decisions Slide 48 of 49 R. T. Clemen, T. Reilly Lecture Notes by: J.R. van Dorp and T.A. Mazzuchi COPYRIGHT © 2006 http://www.seas.gwu.edu/~dorpjr/ by GWU
49.
Step 3: Fill
in the Details Example: Measuring Survey Quality: Best Survey Quality: State-of-the-art Survey. No apparent crucial issues left unaddressed. Has characteristics of the best survey projects presented at professional conferences. Worst Survey Quality: Many issues left unanswered in designing survey. Members of the staff are aware of advances in Draft: Version 1 survey design that could have been incorporated but were not. Not a presentable project. See additional category definitions on Page 82. Making Hard Decisions Chapter 3 – Structuring Decisions Slide 49 of 49 R. T. Clemen, T. Reilly Lecture Notes by: J.R. van Dorp and T.A. Mazzuchi COPYRIGHT © 2006 http://www.seas.gwu.edu/~dorpjr/ by GWU
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