14 selected topics for e-learning technologies (gbl)

Selected Topics for e-
Learning Technologies
(Game Based Learning)
Timothy K. Shih

 GBL -- Overview
 GBL -- Theories of Learning
 GBL -- Virtual Learning
Environments
 GBL -- Learning Game-style
Example

GBL -- Overview
1. INTRODUCTION
2. GAMES CULTURES AND PLAY
3. GAMES AND LEARNING
4. KEY ISSUES IN DEVELOPING
GAMES FOR LEARNING
5.Types of Learning
and Possible Game Styles
6. FUTURE DIRECTIONS IN GAMES
AND LEARNING
7. SUMMARIZE

1. INTRODUCTION
• Some people began to ask one of two
related questions:
– Games take up large periods of time
– What can the education sector learn
and use from these games in order to
„enhance‟ the learning process?

1. INTRODUCTION (Cont.)
• Particularly, it examines three research
questions:
– What is happening during the game-
playing process?
– Can conventional computer games be
used as a vehicle for formal learning?
– What components or features of
conventional computer games can be
taken and used in learning software or
practice?

1. INTRODUCTION - GAME
DEFINITIONS (Cont.)
• Define a digital game as one that:
– Provides some visual digital
information or substance to one or
more players
– Takes some input from the players
– Processes the input according to a set
of programmed game rules
– Alters the digital information provided
to the players

1. INTRODUCTION - GAME
DEFINITIONS (Cont.)
• Define games as programmers that
operate on the following platforms:
– Hardware, known as video game
consoles
– Personal computers
– Mobile devices

1. INTRODUCTION -
RESEARCH ISSUES
AND CREDIBILITY
• Three key issues surrounding research
into games and learning that require
acknowledgement.
– Games and publication cycles
– Games as an interdisciplinary subject
– Games researchers as „defenders‟ of
games

2. GAMES CULTURES AND
PLAY
• CATEGORISING GAMES
• THE PREVALENCE
OF GAMES PLAY
• WHY DO PEOPLE PLAY GAMES?
• CONCERNS AROUND
COMPUTER GAMES PLAY

PLAY – CATEGORISING
GAMES
• The Herz system presents these major
categories:
– Action games
– Adventure games
– Fighting games
– Puzzle games
– Role-playing games
– Simulation games
– Sports games
– Strategy games

PLAY – THE PREVALENCE
OF GAMES PLAY
• Digital games are clearly an important
part of most young people‟s lives today
• Nearly 70% of children play computer
games every week
– Mobile games play is increasingly
common, with 68% of children playing games
on their phone every week (Facer 2001).

PLAY – WHY DO PEOPLE
PLAY GAMES?
• A 2001 survey (ESA) produced four main
reasons for gameplay, namely:
– (87%) of players said the number one reason
they play games is because “it‟s fun”
– Games are challenging (72%)
– Games are an interactive social experience
that can be shared with friends and family
(42%)
– Games provide a lot of entertainment value
for the money (36%).

PLAY - CONCERNS AROUND
COMPUTER GAMES PLAY
• Games displacing other activities
• Durkin (1995) concludes that what
appears to be game-playing addictions
are:
– “…actually transient phases of excessive
involvement rather than enduring
dependencies from which the victim will find
it very difficult to escape.”

PLAY - CONCERNS AROUND
COMPUTER GAMES PLAY
• McFarlane (2002) surveyed English
schoolchildren and discovered that:
– “There is a tendency among girls to play
games when they are bored or have nothing
more interesting to do, whereas boys are
more likely to play games as a first choice
activity.”

3. GAMES AND LEARNING
• GAMES DEFINING
• LEARNING THEORIES
• Computer Game Perspective
• LEARNING WITH GAMES OUTSIDE
SCHOOL
• LEARNING WITH MAINSTREAM GAMES
IN SCHOOLS

3. GAMES AND LEARNING -
GAMES DEFINING
• Jesper Juul propused six criteria of
definitions for a game to be a game.
– A game is a rule-based formal system with a
variable and quantifiable outcome, where
different outcomes are assigned different values
– The player exerts effort in order to influence the
outcome, the player feels attached to the
outcome, and the consequences of the activity
are optional and negotiable

GAMES DEFINING (Cont.)
• Games are often defined in terms of their
interactive and engaging nature:
– An interactive and entertaining source of
play, sometimes used to learn a lesson.

• Salen and Zimmerman wrote the following
often-quoted definition of a game:
– A game is a system in which players engage in
an artificial conflict, defined by rules, that results
in a quantifiable outcome.

• Erik Champion‟s definition of a computer
game :
– A game is a challenge that offers up the
possibility of temporary or permanent tactical
resolution without harmful outcomes to the real
world situation of the participant.

LEARNING THEORIES
Table 1. The view of learning model

LEARNING WITH GAMES
OUTSIDE SCHOOL (Cont.)
• Games are characterised by a trialand-
error approach to overcoming
challenges or obstacles
• Strategy or adventure games, which
encourage students in exploratory
quest-like scenarios with a high degree
of control over their progress

LEARNING WITH GAMES
• Children‟s use of computer games may
play a significant role in developing
effective use of computer-mediated
information resources.
• Mackereth (1998) argues that “there is
evidence to suggest that familiarity
with, and interest in, video games can
influence children‟s confidence when
using computers for more professional
applications”

LEARNING WITH GAMES
• Two studies argue that
– Interactions with computer games encourage
them to develop a playful approach to
computers which develops the expectation
that „trial and error works‟ (Downes 1998)
– Linear progressive models for using
computers are often the least effective way
of engaging with computer-based
technologies (Facer et al 2003).

LEARNING WITH GAMES
• The „new vs old‟ tensions are
summarised by Marc Prensky as:
 Twitch speed vs Conventional speed
 Parallel processing vs Linear processing
 Graphics first vs Text first
 Random access vs Step by step
 Connected vs Standalone

LEARNING WITH GAMES
 Active vs Passive
 Play vs Work
 Payoff vs Patience
 Fantasy vs Reality
 Technology as friend vs Technology
as foe.

LEARNING WITH MAINSTREAM
GAMES IN SCHOOLS
• The most frequently encountered perceived or
actual obstacles were:
– It was difficult for teachers to identify
relevant component of the statutory
curriculum
– The difficulty in persuading other school
stakeholders as to the potential/actual
educational benefits of computer games
– The lack of time available to teachers to
familiarise themselves with the game
– The amount of irrelevant content or
functionality in a game which could not be
removed or ignored

LEARNING WITH MAINSTREAM
GAMES IN SCHOOLS (Cont.)
• Teachers and parents recognised that
games play can support valuable skill
development such as: (McFarlane et al
2002)
– Strategic thinking
– Planning
– Communication
– Application of numbers
– Negotiating skills
– Group decision-making
– Data-handling.

GAMES FOR LEARNING

GAMES FOR LEARNING
Table 2:
comparison
between
mainstream and
„learning‟ games

GAMES FOR LEARNING (Cont.)
• There are two key themes common to
the development of games for
education, namely:
– The desire to harness the motivational power
of games in order to „making learning fun‟
– A belief that „learning through doing‟ in
games such as simulations, offers a powerful
learning tool

• The conditions likely to induce the flow
state are characterised by Malone as:
– The activity should be structured
– It should be easy to isolate the activity
– There should be clear criteria for
performance;
– The activity should provide concrete
feedback to the player
– The activity ought to have a broad range of
challenges, and possibly several qualitatively
different ranges of challenge

• How to design engaging learning
experiences (Jones 1998) :
– Task that we can complete
– Ability to concentrate on task
– Task has clear goals
– Task provides immediate feedback
– Deep but effortless involvement exercising a
sense of control over our actions
– Concern for self disappears during flow, but
sense of self is stronger after flow activity
– Sense of duration of time is altered.

5. Types of Learning

• Types of Learning and Possible Game, Prensky(2001)

and Possible Game Styles (Cont.)
• Types of Learning and Possible Game, Prensky(2001)

AND LEARNING

AND LEARNING
• Using mainstream games in schools
• Using „lite‟ versions of mainstream
games

AND LEARNING –
Using mainstream games
in schools
• The key issues concerning the use of
mainstream games in schools are:
• Teacher keep the students „on track‟ and
troubleshooting
• Identifying games that may be successful or
useful in a classroom situation
• Cultural acceptance of games as media
through which learning can take place
• Compatibility with school
hardware, licencing agreements, and
arguably other software
• There is a need for developers of games
aimed at the stakeholders needs

AND LEARNING –
Using ‘lite’ versions of
mainstream games
• A compromise between edutainment and
mainstream games:
• Have all unnecessary content removed
• Have their content and underlying rule base
verified and tested by educational
organizations
• Include background/help/training materials
for both the teacher/ motivator, and for
students

AND LEARNING –
Using ‘lite’ versions of
mainstream games (Cont.)
• Include curriculum-relevant tasks and
content
• Allow users to save at regular intervals
• Be compatible with the original „full‟
versions, so students could continue using
the game at home
• Be offered to schools on an attractive
licensing system.

7. SUMMARIZE
• This chapter has expounded a
consideration of the case for
developing, and using, computer and
video games for educational purposes.
• Before games can take on a meaningful
role in formal or informal education, the
education sector and the wider public
and media need to better understand the
potential and diversity of such „tools‟.

7. SUMMARIZE (Cont.)
• Though a rapidly growing and maturing
body of research is helping to develop a
clearer understanding of the educational
potential of games, there are as yet a
small number of games that have a clear
contribution to make to the educational
agenda.

GBL -- Theories of Learning
1. Introduction
2. Behavioral learning theory
3. Cognitive learning theory
4. Motivation theory
5. Summarize

1. Introduction
• Computer games are having a shorter
learning curve.
• Some games involve intricate rules that
learner must master in order to win.
• This chapter attempts to shed some light
on how players learn in computer games
based on the theories.

• The explanation of learning that emphasis on
observable changes in behavior is called behavioral
learning theory.
– Classical conditioning
– Operant conditioning

(Cont.)
• The studying of the digestive reflexes of a dog by
Ivan Petrovich Pavlov.
– This serendipity resulted in the definition of a
new paradigm in psychology – Classical
conditioning.

(Cont.)
Figure 1. Classical conditioning

(Cont.)
• Cobwebs are placed together with spiders so that
when seeing the cobweb, players know there are
spiders lurking around the area.
– Players learn to act accordingly, depending on
different stimuli.
Figure 2. Relation between Cobweb and Spider

(Cont.)
• According to Burrhus Frederic Skinner, there are
two kinds of behavior:
– Respondent behavior
– Operant behavior

(Cont.)
• When seeing the monster and than casting
magic, this is an example of respondent behavior
because it is elicited by stimuli.
• Walking about and jumping without a particular
reason are operant behavior because there are not
correlated with known stimuli.

(Cont.)
• Skinner tried to condition the lever-pressing
response of a rat in the Skinner box.
• Using consequences to control the occurrence of
behavior is known as operant conditioning.
Figure 3. Skinner box

(Cont.)
• Most games involve this kind of trial and error
learning, in which reinforcers are used tactfully to
evoke specific behavior.
Figure 4. Operant conditioning

(Cont.)
• There are two types of reinforcers:
– Positive reinforcers
– Negative reinforcers
Figure 5. Positive and Negative Reinforcer Example

(Cont.)
• There are four types of schedule that determine the
frequency and predictability of reinforcement.
– Fixed-ratio schedule
– Variable-ratio schedule
– Fixed-interval schedule
– Variable-interval schedule

• Cognitive theorists argue that learning is a more
complex process that utilises problem-solving and
insightful thinking in addition to repetition of a
stimulus-response chain.
• This theory attempts to answer several questions:
how are memories encoded, how are memories
retained and how are memories retrieved.

(Cont.)
• One classical model of memory proposed by
Atkinson and Shiffrin describes how information is
processed, stored and retrieved in the mind.
Figure 6. Memory model of Atkinson and Shiffrin

(Cont.)
• According to schema theory proposed by Jean
Piaget, information is stored in long-term memory
in network of connected facts and concepts that
provide a structure for making sense of new
information.

(Cont.)
• Figure 7. The network of the enemies in
Super Mario Bros. 3

(Cont.)
• While the information in sensory register and short-
term memory may be forgotten due to decay and
displacement of new information.
• The access to information in long-term memory
may be lost as a result of interference.

• There are two types of interference:
– Proactive interference
– Retroactive interference
(Cont.)

• It should be noticed that learning one thing could
sometimes help a learner in learning similar
information.
• There are two types of facilitation :
– Proactive facilitation
– Retroactive facilitation
(Cont.)

• The skills needed in a game should be introduced in
a well-planed sequence to optimise facilitation.
• Primacy and recency effect suggests the items that
appear at the beginning and end of a list are more
easily recalled than other items.
(Cont.)

• The most mundane technique for committing
information to memory is probably practice.
• There are two kinds of practice：
• Massed practice
• Distributed practice
(Cont.)

(Cont.)
• 15th century, Galileo Galilei
• Discovery learning is one of the instruction models
based on constructivism.
• Learner literally construct the knowledge internally
by immersing themselves into the virtual world.
• When learner encounter new thing, they learn to
adapt it with their existing schema by trial and error
or mental reflection.

4. Motivation theory (Cont.)
• Learners who are motivated can learn almost
everything.
• Motivation is the internal process that
activates, guides, and maintains behavior over time.
• The Maslow‟s hierarchy of needs can be adapted to
explain the needs of player so as to understand
how players are motivated in the game
environment.

4. Motivation theory (Cont.)
Figure 8. Hierarchy of the players‟ needs

5. SUMMARIZE
• Using games as learning tools is an interesting field
to be explored.
• Psychology not only provides a way to apprehend
the learning that occurs naturally in game, but also
helps in developing an environment in which the
players can learn a particular domain of knowledge
extrinsically.

GBL -- Virtual Learning
Environments

GBL
-- Virtual Learning Environments
1. Introduction
2. Game-style Interaction Defining
3. Conclusion

1. Introduction
• There are many research that promote
the use of game-style interaction for both
virtual environments and for virtual
learning environments.
• Development of learning tools based on
the adventure game could provide
educators with a superior mechanism to
entice learners into virtual environments
where knowledge is acquired thought
intrinsic motivation.

2. Defining Game-style
Interaction

2. Game-style Interaction
Defining
• Game Genres
• Environments as Interactive „Places‟
• Games Classified by Learning Modes
• Social Role Playing
• Learning through World Building

Defining - Game Genres
• What games typically have that virtual
environments do not, is a relation to a cultural
genre.
• It might appear that we can learn from the
classification of important game elements
according to the genre that they appear in, the
feedback they provide, and the way in which the
player is “afforded” immersion.

• The games that tend to emphasize physical
embodiment, are typically combat and racing
games.
• An avatar represents the player
• Collision typically results in acoustic feedback
and / or surface erosion or deformation.
• Feedback tends be by loss of points, or the
signaling of end of game or game level.
• The games tend to increase hand-eye co-
ordination.

• Game learning tasks include being set
roles, procedures, or levels of ability to complete
tasks.
• This feature includes in racing games, strategy
games, Civilization-type world building
games, interrogation or text-guessing
games, riddles.

• Competitive or collaborative sense of others
pervades almost all genres
• The player feedback is generally via changes in
points
• Genre can help develop the player‟s memory

• One thing common to all game genres is that they
are challenging (hard fun)
• All games tend to feature increasing
complexity, number of puzzles, or situations to
overcome
• They have tasks, affordances, and constraints.
• The mixture of affordances and constraints and
different levels is designed to be challenging in the
sense of „hard fun‟

• As an easy way of increasing the challenge, games
are also often “time-based”
• As challenges, games can develop pattern
matching and puzzle solving skills, predictive
thinking and bluffing.
• Rewards are also a universal feature of games
• In games knowledge is unfolded, directly related to
the increasing success of the player.

Figure 1.
Renaissance
Community
(Screenshot)

Defining - Social Role
Playing
• It may pay to tailor the virtual environment to the
expected social role and objectives of the user, in
terms of prescriptive learning as a social scientist
(detective), tourist (non-playing character or
observer), or in terms of procedural learning aimed
at the traveler (adventurer).

Playing
• There exists a degree of separation between games
that develop procedural knowledge, and virtual
environments‟ tendency to follow traditional
pedagogy by presenting prescriptive knowledge.
• An obvious example of procedural learning is the
First Person Shooter genre.
• Progress in these games is through procedural
learning, knowledge learnt through trial and
error.

Playing
• Hence we could crudely separate games into those
that attempt to unravel narrative (such as Myst and
other types of interactive fiction), and those that
allow interaction through doing (the competitive
adventurer-explorer games).
• Ex : archaeology is usually attempting to uncover
prescriptive knowledge, knowledge of events, what
happened when, and who did what.
• The detective style games

Playing
• The strategist type games (it incorporates
procedural learning, and prescriptive learning)
• This type of game may expose the workings of
previous civilizations, and it may incorporate
historical events in the way it works out
permutations of player decisions

Playing
• Awareness of other cultural perspectives may be
far more achievable than full understanding of
others cultures.
• Providing full immersion takes time and
concerted understanding.
• Games trivialize consequences
• One takes silly risks and does not care about
others unless respect and recognition of their
social status is required by the gamer.
• Online worlds may offer some hope for
developing meaningful learning, but they tend to
be liberal with their relation to authenticity.

Playing
• Players could learn different ways of interacting
with the world depending on the nature of their
character‟s background and the location of that
character.
• The teacher or guide could act as a game-
keeper, allowing people to explore the parameters
of their roles, give suggestions, and punish or
reward players.

Defining - Learning through
World Building
• In the Information Environments Program at the
University of Queensland have encouraged
students to explore virtual environment building
through game-level editors and through user-
testing.
Figure 2. Scenes of the Virtual Environment world

3. SUMMARIZE
• When told a virtual environment is a
game, participants of all ages and both genders
seem much more at ease and aware of potential
affordances.
• Games do offer some form of social
context, embodiment, and challenge
• Fantastical Simulations
• In order to stimulate that learning process, we need
to investigate what the learner experience is for and
how the interaction methods and metaphors can
best present content, engage, and coax the learner
to develop either transferable skills or factual
knowledge.

Some Learning Game-style
Example

Learning Game-style
Example
• SIMULATION GAME - Example
• MOBILE GAME – Example
• SUMMARIZE

1. Learning Game-style
SIMULATION GAME
Example(1)
• LEAN MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS (Durk-
Jouke van der Zee, 2005)
– A CASE EXAMPLE FROM INDUSTRY
• The objective of the game
 Support the introduction of lean
principles in an existing assembly line

SIMULATION GAME Example(1)
(Cont.)
• Table 1: Framework for Game Design

(Cont.)
• Table 1: Framework for Game Design
(Cont.)

(Cont.)
• Table 2: Game Elements

1. Learning Game-style SIMULATION
GAME Example(1) (Cont.)
• Figure 1: A Simulation Game for Teaching – EM-
PlantTM Model

(Cont.)
• Authors found the simulation game has essential
strengths relate to the possibilities to:
• Demonstrate workings and control of the system
• Experience the proposed system
• Involve users in determining job and worker
characteristics that are relevant for selecting
control decisions
• Involve users in the construction of alternative
rules for worker deployment
• Contribute to team coordination and team
building, by assigning appropriate roles

• Kenya Freeman Oduor et. al. (2007) want to explorer
the reliability as key factors in whether automation
will be properly used, misused, or disused in
systems management.
– Authors conducted an experiment in which an
automated decision aid presented suggestions
or policies to participants while they managed a
simulated city (i.e., Policity).

(Cont.)
• Figure 2. Policity user

Mobile Game – Example(1)
Reality Role Playing
Figure 3. A screen shot of a handheld AR game (left) and
2 players conducting an AR investigation (right).

Mystery at the Museum
 The fundamental interactions that were inherent to
the game were as follows:
 In each room was a set of virtual characters,
which could be "interviewed" by clicking on them.
 In many rooms there were virtual objects, which
could be picked up and examined.
 In several locations virtual equipment could be
used to obtain further information about the virtual
objects.
 Several items in the museum were tagged with
infrared tags.
 Players could exchange objects and interviews
with each other through localized infrared beaming.

Figure 4. A screen shot showing virtual items and
characters in the room (left) and a group of players
collecting clues in the museum (right).
Mystery at the Museum (Cont.)

Figure 5. Interfaces of the BuinZoo PDA Application
Mobile Game-Based Science Learning

Summary
• Now a day, there are two popular types of game-
based learning – Simulation and Mobile game.
• According to more and more technologies can
support for interactive game design
(Ex, Wireless Lan, GPS system and other useful
control media)
• It will helpful to solved problems in designing
phase
• Gaming content (Interactive elements and
learning behaviors)
• Learner‟s Learning behavior

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