1. CHAPTER 1 :
MATERIAL STRUCTURE
AND BINARY ALLOY
SYSTEM

2. STRUCTURE OF
MATERIALS AND EPT

3. ATOM
Particle Charge
Electron Negative (-)
Proton Positive (+)
Neutron Neutral
• Atom is unit of matter; the smallest unit of a
chemical element.
• Each atom consists of a nucleus, which has a
positive charge, and a set of electrons that move

4. ELEMENT
 Is a combination of 2 or more same atoms which
form a bond.
 Atoms in elements all have the same number of
protons - i.e. the same atomic number.
 Example of element; Cl2

5. MIXTURE
 Combination of two or more different substances
which are mixed together but are not combined
chemically.
 Example of mixture; salt water, concrete.
“Putting Together And Breaking Apart”

6. COMPOUND
 Is a pure chemical substance consisting of two or
more different chemical elements that can be
separated into simpler substances by chemical
reactions.
 Example of compound; Carbon Dioxide (CO2).

7. ATOMIC NUMBER
 Is the number of protons found in the nucleus of
an atom and therefore identical to the charge
number of the nucleus.

8. ATOMIC MASS
 Is the total number of protons and neutrons in the
nucleus of an atom.
Atomic Mass = No. of proton + No. of
neutron

9. ATOMIC ORBITS
• Electrons if filled to atomic orbits by using formula
2n2 as below.
• The highest no. of electron on the outer shell/orbits
is 8.
No. of
No. of orbit (n)
electron
First orbit (n=1) 2
Second orbit (n=2) 8
Third orbit (n=3) 18
Fourth orbit (n=4) 32

10.  Example : Determine the electrons configuration and
number of orbital for below elements.
i) Oxygen (Atom no. = 8)
ii) Magnesium (Atom no. = 12)
iii)Chlorine (Atom no. = 19)
iv) Arsenic (Atom no. = 33)
Answer :
i) Electrons configuration = 2:6 , No. of orbital = 2
ii) Electrons configuration = 2:8:2 , No. of orbital = 3
iii) Electrons configuration = 2:8:8:1 , No. of orbital = 4
iv) Electrons configuration = 2:8:18:5 , No. of orbital =
4

11. Atom’s
Number Atom’s Mass
7 14
Element’s
Symbol
N
Nitrogen
Element’s
Name
2:5
Electrons
configuration

12. ELEMENT PERIODICAL TABLE

13. CHARACTERISTICS OF EPT
 Have 18 lines in vertical and 7 lines in horizontal.
 Elements in the periodic table are arranged in
periods (rows) and groups (columns) base on
atomic number.
Group
Period

14. • Groups
- Elements in same group having the same
electron configuration in their outer shell. E.g ;
element in group 1 has 1 electron in outer shell,
element in group 2 has 2 electron in outer shell.
- Elements in groups sharing similar chemical
properties.
• Period
- Elements in same period having the same no. of
orbit.
- Each of the seven periods is filled sequentially
by atomic number
• When valance electron increase, metal properties
of element decrease.

15. FUNCTION OF EPT
 To ease the classification of elements.
 Able to provide information especially for
properties of the elements due to elements are
arrange in respective group.
 Easier to analyze and understand reaction
between elements.

16. CRYSTALLIZE STRUCTURE
 The atoms arrange themselves into various
orderly configuration, called crystal.
 Crystal structure is a unique arrangement of
atoms or molecules in a crystalline liquid or solid.
 Patterns are located upon the points of a lattice,
which is an array of points repeating periodically
in three dimensions.
 The points can be thought of as forming identical
tiny boxes, called unit cells, that fill the space of
the lattice

17.  There are 4 types of crystal structure:
Types of
crystallize
structure
Body Hexagonal
Face centered
Simple cube centered Close packed
cubic (FCC)
cubic (BCC) (HCP)

18. SIMPLE CUBE
• Is a cube (all sides of the same length and all face
perpendicular to each other) with an atom at each
corner of the unit cell.
• Contains only one atom per unit cell.

19. BODY CENTERED CUBIC
(BCC)
• Is a cube (all sides of the same length and all face
perpendicular to each other) with an atom at each
corner of the unit cell and an atom in the center of
the unit cell.
• Contains two atoms per unit cell.

20. FACE CENTERED CUBIC (FCC)
• Is a cube (all sides of the same length and all face
perpendicular to each other) with an atom at each
corner of the unit cell and an atom situated in the
middle of each face of the unit cell.
• Contains four atoms per unit cell.

21. HEXAGANOL CLOSED
PACKED (HCP)
• is a unit cell with an atomic packing arrangement
in which 12 atoms surround a central identical atom.
• Contains six atoms per unit cell.

22. COVALENT BOND
 Bond occur between non-metals.
 Covalent chemical bonds involve the sharing of a
pair of valence electrons by two atoms.
 Example ; Cl2
!!! Remember : Covalent = sharing atoms

24. IONIC BONDING
 Bonds occur between metals and non-metals.
 The metal gives its outer electrons to the non-
metal - electrons are transferred in this type of
bonding.
 The metal has lost electrons, and is now a
positive ion or cation.
 The non-metal has gained electrons, and is
now a negative ion or anion.
 Both the metal and non-metal now have full
outer shells of electrons.

25. • Example ; NaCl
!!! Remember : Ionic = gain/loose atoms

27. METALLIC BONDING
 The bonding in metal elements is called metallic
bonding.
 In metals, the metal atoms lose their outer
electrons to form metal cations. The electrons
from all the metal atoms form a "sea" of electrons
that can flow around these metal cations. These
electrons are "not fixed in one place" or "free to
move".

28.  Metal cations and the electrons are oppositely
charged. They will be attracted to each other, and
also to other metal cations. These electrostatic
forces are called metallic bonds, and these are
what hold the particles together in metals.

29. SOLIDIFICATION OF
METAL AND ALLOYS

30. SOLIDIFICATION PHASES
First Stage Second Third Stage Fourth
Stage Stage
Nucleus formation Dendrite grow Dendrite growth & Solidification ends
arms meet to form the with the formation of
grain boundary grain

31. METAL VS ALLOY
Metal Alloy
 Metal is made up of  Alloy is a mixture of two
only one element. or more metals, or
metal and non-metal.
 Has a relatively high
 Has a low melting melting point.
point.

32. SOLID SOLUTION
 Terms in solid solution
> Solute : is the element that is added to the
solvent. Eg. Sugar.
> Solvent : a liquid substance capable of
dissolving other substances. Eg. Water.
 Solid solution : when solute is added to the
solvent, the crystal structure of the solvent
remains unchanged and the mixture remains in a
single homogeneous phase.
 2 types of solid solution :
i) Substitution solid solution
ii) interstitial solid solution

33. COMPARISON ON TYPES
OF SOLID SOLUTION
Substitution Interstitial
 Formation : If the  Formation : The solute
atoms of the solvent atom does not displace
(host atom) are a solvent atom (host
replaced in the crystal atom), but rather it
lattice by atoms of the enters one of the holes
solute metal. or interstices between
the solvent atoms.

34.  Atomic size : Solute  Atomic size : Solute
and solvent atomic atoms must have a
radii have the smaller atomic radii
difference in atomic less than one
radii less than about angstrom compare to
15 percent. solvent atom.
 Others : Have 2 types
of substitution solid
solution. Disordered
and Ordered.

35. Ordered substitutional
The solute atoms move into definite positions in the
lattice.

36. Disordered substitutional
The solute atoms do not occupy any specific
position but are distributed at random in the lattice
structure of the solvent.

37. SOLIDIFICATION PROCESS

38.  Solid  Liquid  Liquid  Solid
 When certain metal is  Kinetic energy for
heated constantly, it will atoms increase.
start to melt.  Atoms arrangement
 If the heating change from disordered
continued, metal will position to certain
melt entirely. geometry position.
 The constant melting  Solid materials
temperature is melting formed either in
point. amorphous or
At the melting point crystalline structure.
the solid and liquid
phase exist in
!!! Amorphous : Atoms do not have a long-range crystalline structure.
equilibrium
Have no grain boundaries and atoms are randomly packed.

39. EQUILIBRIUM PHASE
DIAGRAM

40.  Point 100% Cu & 0% Ni
- solidification temperature 1084 C
 Point 80% Cu & 20% Ni
- solidification starts at 1190 C.
- Complete at 1135 C.
 Point 80% Ni & 20% Cu
- solidification starts at 1410 C.
- Complete at 1380 C.
 Point 100% Ni & 0% Cu
- solidification temperature 1445 C

41. TERMINOLOGIES IN PHASE
DIAGRAM
 Phase : is a physical distinct and homogenous portion in a
material.
 Equilibrium phase : are graphical representations of what
phases are present under equilibrium conditions at various
temperature, pressure and composition.
 Composition : Are percentage of certain materials added
purposely or not, to another material. With this it can cause
changes in phases, the properties and the shape of the
microstructures.
 Liquidus : The minimum temperature at which all
components of a mixture (such as an alloy) can be in a