Minerals

1. Minerals

2. • Minerals are inorganic substances and constitutes
about 4 to 5% of the body weight
• Utilised for functions such as for formation of bones
and teeth,
• essential constituents of body fluids and tissues
• components of enzyme systems and for normal
nerve functions.

3. CLASSIFICATION
• Some of them are needed in large amounts, called
essential minerals, e.g. calcium, phosphorus,
magnesium, sodium, potassium and chloride.
• Others are required in, comparatively, small quantities
and, therefore, are referred to as trace elements, e.g.
iron, zinc, iodine, fluoride, selenium and copper.

4. SODIUM
• Sodium is a component of common salt, known as
sodium chloride (NaCl).
• Sodium is the major part of extracellular fluid.
• Normal serum sodium concentration is 136 to 145
mEq/L.
• bile and pancreatic juice contain sodium.
• 35% to 40% of the total body sodium is in the
skeleton.

5. • Recommended daily allowances
• Sodium requirements depend on its losses through
urine, faeces and sweat.
• The sweat loss varies according to climatic conditions.
• High temperature and vigorous physical exercise
increase sodium loss through sweat
• Salt intake is normally between 5-8 g per day.

6. • Dietary sources
• salt (sodium 40%, chloride 60%) is the major source
of sodium in our diet.
• Cereals, pulses, vegetables, and animal and sea foods
are the major sources of sodium.
• Preserved foods (such as pickles), sun dried foods (like
papads, sauces/ketchup) and canned foods contribute
high sodium

7. Functions
• 1. essential ingredient of food and enhances its taste.
• 2. it is used as a preservative.
• 3. Sodium is also required for the absorption of certain
nutrients and water from the gut
• .4. Sodium plays main role in regulating body water and
electrolyte balance.
• 5. It also plays an important role in normal functioning of
the cell.

8. • Toxicity.
• High sodium intake leads to high blood pressure
(hypertension), causing cardiovascular disease and
stroke.
• There is a strong association between salt intake and
blood pressure.intake of more than 8 g/day is
considered as a risk factor for hypertension.

9. • Prevalence of hypertension is low in those consuming
less than 3 g salt per day.
• excessive salt intake increased urinary calcium
excretion. Thus, high salt intake is risk factor for
osteoporosis.
• Excessive salt may also affect stomach mucosa and
result in atrophic gastritis and gastric cancer.

10. POTASSIUM
• Potassium is present in intracellular fluid.in small
amount in the extracellular fluid
• Normal serum potassium concentration is 3.5 to 5.0
meq/L
• Recommended daily allowances
• Adequate intake of potassium for adults is 4 to 5 g per
day.

11. Dietary sources
• fruits, vegetables, fresh meat and dairy products are
good sources of potassium
• .Functions
• Potassium is essential for water and electrolyte
balance, and normal functioning of the cells, nerves
• .1. Potassium, with sodium, is involved in maintaining
normal water balance, osmotic equilibrium and acid
base balance

12. • .2. regulation of neuromuscular activity
• .3. Concentrations of sodium and potassium in nerves
and muscle increases strength
• 4. Potassium also promotes cellular growth.

13. •Deficiency
•Low blood potassium levels (hypokalemia) can result
from severe diarrhea.
• Insufficient potassium intake causes hypertension
and cardiac arrhythmia.
•Symptoms include weakness, mental confusion and
heart failure.

14. CHLORIDE
• Chloride is present in the extracellular fluid.
•Normal plasma chloride concentration is 96-106
meq/L.
• Highest concentration is found in CSF.
•Recommended daily allowances
•The mean daily intake, is about 10-15 g

15. • Dietary sources
• Most important source of chloride is common salt
(sodium chloride).
• Seafoods, milk, meat and egg are also good sources of
salt.

16. Functions
• 1. Primary function of chloride is, along with Na+ and
K, to maintain osmotic pressure
• .2. it also participates in the maintenance of pH of
body fluids.
• 3. Chloride also plays a role in gaseous transport of
carbon dioxide.

17. • 4 component of HCI, present in gastric juice.
• 5. Chloride is required as an activator for the enzyme
salivary amylase.
• 6. maintaining equilibrium between intracellular
and extracellular fluids

18. CALCIUM
• Calcium (Ca) is the most abundant mineral, found in
the body.
• Adult human body contains, nearly, 1.0-1.5 Kg of
calcium, 99% is found in bones and teeth, and 1% in
the extracellular fluid.

19. • Calcium level in the blood is regulated by balancing
calcium absorption from the gut, excretion via
kidneys, and mobilization and deposition in the
bone.
• regulated by feedback mechanisms, controlled by
hormones, parathyroid hormone (PTH) and calcitriol

20. • Recommended daily allowances
• An adult requires nearly 600 mg of calcium, per day.
• Its requirement is increased to about 1200 mg day
during pregnancy and lactation.

21. • Dietary sources
• Milk cheese and other dairy products are rich sources
of calcium.
• Eggs, dry fruits, legumes, green leafy vegetables (such
as broccoli and cabbage), fortified soya products, and
fish eaten with the bones (such as tinned salmon and
whitebait) are also good sources of calcium

22. •Functions
•Bones and teeth - Formation of bone and teeth Bones
•• Muscle contraction - Ca mediates excitation and
contraction of muscle fibers.
• Ca triggers muscle contraction.
•Ca also activates ATPase and increases interaction
between actin and myosin.

23. • Nerve conduction - Transmission of nerve impulses in
synaptic region
• Secretion of hormones – It mediates the secretion of
insulin. PTH. calcitonin and vasopressin...
• • stimulates production of hormones, such as
glucagon.

24. • Membrane integrity and permeability - Calcium
influences transport of substances across the
membranous barrier.
• Blood coagulation - Calcium is essential for factor IV
in blood coagulation and in the conversion of
prothrombin to thrombin
• Action on heart - Ca prolongs systole and increases
myocardial contractility

25. •Absorption, metabolism, storage and
excretion
• Absorption of calcium occurs in the duodenum,
against concentration gradient.
• Absorption requires energy and a carrier protein..
• Factors which promote Ca absorption include:–
Vitamin D (calcitriol) and carrier protein

26. .Factors which inhibit Ca absorption
• Phytates and oxalates - form insoluble calcium
oxalates
• High dietary phosphates - precipitateas calcium
phosphate,
• High pH (alkalinity),
• High dietary fiber,
• Malabsorption syndrome - Fatty acids are not
absorbed and form insoluble calcium salts of fatty
acids.

27. • Deficiency diseases
• Inadequate intake of calcium, in addition to an
inadequate intake of vitamin D, contribute to rickets
in children, and osteomalacia in adults.
• Hypocalcemia may also lead to osteoporosis, which is
characterized by loss of bone matrix and
demineralization.

28. • Decreased calcium intake, particularly, during
menopause, leads to increased fragility of bones,
mainly, of extremities and pelvis.
• Hypocalcemia may also result in tetany of skeletal
muscle. It is characterized by muscle twitching,
spasms and, , convulsions.

29. • Toxicity
• Minerals. Very high intake of calcium (2000 mg or
more, per day) may lead to excessive calcification in
soft tissues, especially, the kidneys.
• Long term high intakes of calcium may lead to
increased bone fractures in the elderly, , due to high
bone remodelling rate
• High intakes of calcium may also interfere with the
absorption of iron, zinc and manganese. .

30. PHOSPHORUS
• adult body has nearly 600-800 g of phosphorus.
• About 85% of it is present in skeleton and teeth, as
calcium phosphate crystals.
• It is essential for the structure of cell membranes, as
phospholipids.

31. • Recommended daily allowances
• Daily requirement of phosphorus, for adults, is 1000-
1500 mg (1.0 to 1.5 g) per day.
• Dietary sources
• Phosphorus is abundant in red meat, dairy products,
fish, poultry, bread, rice and in foods that contain
calcium

32. •Functions.
•Phosphate, with calcium, forms calcium phosphate,
the major inorganic molecule in teeth and bones.
•Phopholipid molecules present in the cell acts as
messengers
•Phosphate functions as buffer in the intracellular fluid
and kidney tubules
•Functions as component of DNA , RNA , ATP and other
energy releasing components

33. Absorbtion ,metabolism ,storage and excretion
• Organic form is hydrolyzed and absorbed from the lumen of
the small intestine
• Released as inorganic phosphate by the action of pancreatic
phosphatases
• Present in the serum as free ions and small amount is bound
to protiens
• Excretion occurs through kidneys
• In case of phosphorous over load it is excreted through feces

34. Deficiency diseases
• Deficiency occurs in long term TPN without sufficient intake
of phosphate
• Phosphate deficiency leads to neural ,muscular ,skeletal
,hematologic ,renal abnormalities
•Toxicity
• Long term consumption of low calcium and high phosphate
contribute to reduction in bone mass
• Bones turn fragile and thin leading to fractures

35. • MAGNESIUM
• Magnesium is an essential mineral present in all
human tissues especially, in bones.
•
• It is needed for the activation of many enzymes, e.g.
for the replication of DNA, synthesis of RNA, and for
the secretion of parathyroid hormone which is
involved in Calcium metabolism Involved in bone
mineralisation

36. • Recommended daily allowances
• Average daily requirement of magnesium, for adults,
is 310-340 mg.

37. Dietary sources
• Magnesium is available , both, plant and animal
• , present in chlorophyll, the green pigment in plants.
• Whole grain, cereals, potatoes and seafoods are good
sources of magnesium.
• Beverages, such as coffee, tea and cocoa, also contain
magnesium

38. • Functions
• Magnesium is a cofactor for enzymes involved in the
metabolism
• , catalyzing synthesis of fatty acids and proteins and
in the glucose metabolism

39. • Magnesium also plays a role in neuromuscular
transmission and activity.
• Magnesium also acts as a physiologic calcium channel
blocker there by controlling blood pressure

40. • Absorption, metabolism, storage and excretion
• Magnesium may be absorbed in small intestine
• absorption occurs in the jejunum.
• magnesium from the gut is absorbed by two
mechanisms that is by carrier-facilitated process and
simple diffusion.

41. • absorption varies with the magnesium status of the
individual and the amount of magnesium in the diet
• Kidneys control magnesium balance
• . If suppliments are taken along with normal dietary
intake this will result in increased urinary excretion
and increase in serum magnesium level

42. • Deficiency diseases
• Magnesincy is seen in children suffering from
kwashiorkor.
• Low serum magnesium in toxemia of pregnancy,
rickets, and diarrhea and vomiting
• Magnesium deficiency is characterized by progressive
muscle weakness and neuromuscular dysfunctions.
• Deficiency symptoms include tremors, muscle
spasms, personality changes, anorexia. nausea and
vomiting.

43. • Severe magnesium depletion decreases PTH secretion
by parathyroid glands, impairs bone mineralisation
• , impairs bone growth in young children and causes
development of osteoporosis in older individuals.

44. in tetany of skeletal muscles. It is characterized by
muscle twitching, spasms and, eventually,
convulsions, caused by low blood level of calcium and
magnesium

45. • Toxicity
• Magnesium toxicity may be observed due to increased
use of magnesium containing laxatives and antacids.
• Large doses of magnesium can result in central
nervous system depression and even paralysis,
• Excess of magnesium can also inhibit bone
calcification.

46. •IRON
•Total quantity of iron (Fe), in normal adult human
body, is about 4 g.
•Iron may be incorporated in the Fe2+ and Fe3+ forms
• Fe2+ is called heme, Fe3+. is hematin.

47. • Recommended daily allowances
•
• Recommended daily allowance (RDA) for iron is about
17 mg for normal adult males.
• requirement in females are increased (due to loss)
during menstruation, and during pregnancy and
lactation, due to increased demand of the body.

48. •Dietary sources
•Dietary iron is found in two forms, i.e. as heme iron
from animal sources and nonheme iron from plant
sources).
•Food, cooked in iron cookware, is the best source of
iron.
•Animal foods, such as meat, fish and egg, are good
sources of heme iron.
•• Green leafy vegetables, cereals, legumes, pulses
and beans (whole grains), nuts and fruits, are good
sources of nonheme iron,

49. • Absorption, metabolism, storage and excretion
• iron which is found in plant foods and animal foodare
absorbed from small intestine

50. • Nearly 30% of the body iron store is in the liver, 30% in the
bone marrow and the rest in the spleen and muscle.
• • Iron is only lost from the body through bleeding and in very
small amounts through defecation, sweat, and exfoliation of
hair and skin.
• . Loss of iron in menstruation, is about 0.5 mg day.

51. •Functions•
• component of hemoglobin , transport of oxygen and
carbon dioxide..
• Myoglobin, a serves as an oxygen reservoir within muscle
• .involved in immune functions and cognitive performance.
• . It is also involved in synthesis of neurotransmitters.

52. • Deficiency diseases
• Iron deficiency can be a result of injury, hemorrhage
or some other illness, e.g. blood loss, hookworms or a
GIT disease that interferes with iron absorption.
• aggravated by an unbalanced diet, containing
insufficient iron, protein, folate or vitamin C.

53. • Lack of dietary iron leads to anemia, also called as
iron deficiency anemia, characterized by reduced
amount of hemoglobin, in blood.

54. • Classification of anemia
• Degree of anemia is based on Hemoglobin (g %)
• Mild 10.0–10.9
• Moderate 7.0–10.0
• Severe < 7.0

55. • EFFECT OF ANEMIA
• Anemic children become dull, inactive, loose of
appetite and have poor growth.
• In females, deficiency of iron reduces their work
capacity.
• It is also associated with reduced immune-
competence

56. • Toxicity
• Major cause of iron overload is hereditary
hemochromatosis.
• Frequent blood transfusions
• long term ingestion of large amount of iron can also
lead to abnormal accumulation of iron in the liver.

57. •Consumption of, large amount of iron, or those with a
genetic defect resulting in excessive iron absorption,
can develop an iron storage condition called
hemosiderosis. associated with tissue damage, it is
referred to as hemochromatosis.

58. • ZINC
•Total body content of zinc, in an adult man 2.0 g.
• eye, liver, prostate gland and prostate fluid contain high
concentration of zinc.
•Recommended daily allowances
•Daily intake of zinc is about 10-12 mg

59. • Dietary sources
• Zinc is present in meat
• Colostrum .
• milk, cheese, eggs, shellfish, wholegrain cereals,
nuts and pulses

60. • Absorption, metabolism, storage and excretion•
• The mechanism of absorption of zinc involves two
pathways,
• carrier mechanism operating most efficiently at low
zinc intake low concentration

61. • Zinc absorption may be enhanced by glucose ,
protein-rich diet promotes
•- Zinc absorption is slightly higher during pregnancy
and lactation.
•• Absorbed zinc is taken up through portal circulation
reaches the liver and other tissues.
•Excretion of zinc is, almost through fecas

62. • Deficiency diseases
• Clinical signs of zinc deficiency, include short stature,
hypogonadism and mild anemia.
• • Zinc deficiency also results in decreased taste acuity,
delays wound healing, alopecia and skin lesions.
• Its deficiency also results in immunologic defects, such as
reduced lymphocyte , decrease in T4-helper cells

63. IODINE
20-30 mg of iodine is present in adult human body.
It is an essential component of the thyroid hormones,
Recommended daily allowances
Daily requirement for iodine is about 50-100 ug
Dietary sources
Iodine requirement is mostly fulfilled from drinking water.
Adequate supply of iodine rom iodized salt.
Seafoods, fruits, vegetables, cereals and meat are good
sources of iodine.

64. • Functions
• Important function of iodine is the synthesis of the thyroid
hormones, T3 and T4
• ,These hormones function in the regulation of basal
metabolism

65. • Absorption, metabolism, storage and excretion•
• Iodine is absorbed as iodide.
• • In the circulation, iodine exists in two forms, i.e. as free
and protein-bound,
• .• Iodine is stored in the thyroid gland, where it is used in the
synthesis of T3 and T4.
• Uptake of iodide ions by the thyroid cells may be inhibited by
goitrogens
• • Excretion is, urine, small amounts are also found in the
faeces

66. •Deficiency diseases
•lodine deficiency causes abnormal enlargement of the
thyroid gland, called goiter
• In childhood, iodine deficiency causes retarded
physical and mental growth. cretinism, which results
in developmental delay and other health problems.

67. • Endemic goiter, enlargement of thyroid gland, causes
swelling in front part of the neck, due to lack of iodine
• Cretinism - Cretinism is the severe form of IDD. It
occurs during fetal stage and interferes with brain
development, causing brain damage and death. It also
results in growth failure, mental retardation, and
speech and hearing defects.

68. • Iodine deficiency is associated with the development
of endemic goiter, enlargement of the thyroid gland,
commonly observed in mountainous areas and in
regions of high goitrogens intake.
• Goitrogens are the substances that exist, naturally, in
foods. They can cause goiter, by blocking uptake of
iodine, from blood, by the thyroid cells.
• Foods, containing goitrogens, include cabbage,
peanuts, , sweet potatoes and soybeans etc

69. •Goitrogens can be inactivated by heating or cooking.
Severe iodine deficiency during gestation and early
postnatal growth, results in cretinism in infants

70. • FLUORIDE
•
• Fluoride is present in traces, in several tissues, mainly,
bones, teeth, thyroid gland and skin.
• Recommended daily allowances
• Daily requirement of fluoride is 2-3 mg.
• Dietary sources
• Drinking water is an important source of fluoride,
• , fluoride can also be obtained from tea and fish.

71. • Functions
• Main function of fluoride is in the mineralization of
bones and teeth
• .Fluoride also acts as an antibacterial agent, in the
oral cavity and protects teeth from dental caries

72. • Absorption, metabolism, storage and excretion
• Fluoride, is absorbed quickly in the stomach and.in the small
intestine.:
• As soon as fluoride is absorbed, plasma fluoride levels
increase, reaching peak levels after 60 minutes.
• There are 2 forms of fluoride in plasma.
• One as ionic fluoride and the second one i as nonionic or
bound fluoride,

73. • Once fluoride reaches plasma, it is deposited in the skeleton or
excreted the kidneys
• .In bones, fluoride can be deposited in the layers, the crystal
structures, or the bone matrix.
• Once bone saturation is approached, the fluoride is slowly removed. .
• Fluoride is secreted in saliva.
• Salivary levels increase as plasma levels increase.
• The fluoride that is not stored in bone is excreted mainly in urine and
a minimal quantity excreted through faeces

74. • Deficiency diseases
• Deficiency of fluoride promotes development of dental
caries in children and osteoporosis in adults
• Toxicity
• High intake of fluoride can cause fluorosis.
• Symptoms may be mild, (such as mottling and crumbling of
teeth),
• severe (causing skeletal changes, such as calcification of
ligaments and tendons), which leads to muscle, joint and
bone problems.

75. • two types of fluorosis,
• dental fluorosis and skeletal fluorosis
• .Dental fluorosis - Dental fluorosis is seen in children
between 5-7 years of age.
• teeth lose their shiny appearance and chalky white patches
develop on them.
• Changes are called mottling of enamel. In severe cases, loss
of enamel gives teeth a corroded appearance

76. •Skeletal fluorosis
• Skeletal fluorosis is seen in older adults, due to heavy
fluoride deposition in skeleton.
• It is manifested as: pain, numbness and tingling sensation of
the extremities, and stiffness of neck.
• Crippling also occurs, leading to disability.
• The lower limbs appear as knock-knees, due to osteoporosis.

77. manganese
• Total body manganese (Mn) content of an adult is 10-12 mg.
• It is mainly concentrated in the bone, liver and kidney
• .Recommended daily allowance
• Daily requirement of manganese is 2-5 mg.
• : Dietary sources
• Nuts, whole grain cereals, legumes and leafy vegetables
• Tea is also a rich source of manganese.

78. • Functions
•
• Manganese is required for bone formation and energy
metabolism.
• antioxidant
• Absorption, metabolism, storage and excretion
• Manganese is absorbed throughout the small intestine.
• It is transported bound to a globulins
• Excretion ismainly, in the faeces

79. • Deficiency diseases
• Due to its role in reproduction, manganese deficiency
results in sterility, in both the sexes. m

80. • Toxicity
• Manganese toxicity is developed in mine workers, as a
result of its absorption through respiratory tract
• . Its accumulation in the liver and central nervous
system causing Parkinson-like symptoms.
• headache, dizziness and hepatic dysfunctions.

81. •Cobalt
•
• Adult human body contains 2-3 mg of cobalt.
• ,present in the liver and kidneys.
• Recommended daily allowances
• Requirement of cobalt is 1-2 ug/day

82. • Dietary sources
• Liver meat is a rich source of cobalt.
• Functions
• Component of vitamins B12 cobalamin

83. Absorbtion,metabolism,storage and excretion
• Absorbed in the small intestine and is through plasma
transported bound with transferrin
• Stored in the liver and other tissues for storage
• The major route of cobalt excretion is urine.
• Small amounts are also excreted via faeces, sweat
and hair

84. Deficiency diseases
•Cobalt deficiency results in vitamin B12 deficiency,
which, in turn, causes macrocytic anemia
•.Toxicity
• polycythemia , hyperplasia of bone marrow, and
increased blood volume.