The document discusses electronics and basic electronic circuits. It begins by introducing electrons and how their arrangement determines electrical characteristics of substances. Electronics is defined as the field dealing with electron devices and their utilization for purposes like rectification, amplification, generation, and control/conversion of signals. The document then summarizes the evolution of electronics from early experiments in the late 19th century to modern integrated circuits. It provides examples of applications of electronics in various fields like entertainment, defense, industry, medicine, and instrumentation. Finally, it discusses electronic components, focusing on resistors including types, specifications, symbols, classifications, and examples like carbon composition, carbon film, metal film, and wire wound resistors.
1. There are various methods to measure resistance depending on the resistance range. Low and medium resistances can be measured using ammeter-voltmeter, potentiometer, and Wheatstone bridge methods.
2. High resistances like cable insulation and transmission line insulators require methods that address problems like leakage currents and electrostatic effects, such as the guard circuit and screened measuring circuits.
3. Common instruments to measure high resistances include megohmmeters, which apply a voltage and measure the leakage current, and earth testers, which measure earth electrode resistance using auxiliary electrodes.
The document provides an overview of basic electronics topics including analog and digital electronics. In analog electronics, it discusses components such as resistors, capacitors, inductors, diodes and transistors. It describes resistors and how to identify resistor values using color bands. It explains capacitors and inductors, how they store energy, and their symbols. It provides details on diodes, including their construction, characteristics curve, and forward and reverse bias operation. The document also briefly introduces digital electronics and logic gates.
This document provides information about biopotential electrodes used for measuring bioelectric signals from the body. It discusses the electrode-skin interface and equivalent circuit, sources of noise and offset voltages, and classifications of electrodes including microelectrodes for single-cell measurements, skin surface electrodes like limb electrodes and suction cups for ECG, and needle electrodes for acute internal measurements. It also covers topics like the stable silver-silver chloride electrode, effects of polarization, and ensuring high amplifier input impedance.
The document provides information about the ESL 130 Electrical and Electronics Workshop course. It outlines the continuous internal evaluation pattern which includes attendance, classwork assessment, and end semester exams. It then lists the various exercises and experiments covered in the course, including familiarization of electronic components, circuit diagram drawing, use of testing instruments, component testing, soldering practices, printed circuit boards, and assembling electronic circuits. Key components discussed include resistors, capacitors, inductors, diodes, transistors, integrated circuits, and various connectors.
This presentation includes Electrical services basic layout and basic terminologies related to electrical services and its also includes types of wiring and system of wiring....
This document discusses resistors, including their history, types, uses, and color coding. It aims to determine resistor values using color codes, describe resistors and how to use them, and discuss the history of resistors with examples. Resistors are described as passive components that limit current flow. Their history is outlined from Georg Ohm's work in the 1820s to Otis Boykin's resistor patents in the 1950s-60s. Types of resistors covered include carbon composition, carbon film, metal film, and wire wound resistors. Their advantages and disadvantages are compared. Reasons for using resistors and how to use them are explained. Color coding of resistors is also discussed.
This document contains the overview and introduction presented by Mohankumar V for the Network Theory course. It outlines the syllabus, including topics covered, evaluation criteria, prerequisites and outcomes. The class covered basic concepts in network theory including different electrical elements, circuit simplification techniques using source transformation, and provided examples applying these techniques.
1. There are various methods to measure resistance depending on the resistance range. Low and medium resistances can be measured using ammeter-voltmeter, potentiometer, and Wheatstone bridge methods.
2. High resistances like cable insulation and transmission line insulators require methods that address problems like leakage currents and electrostatic effects, such as the guard circuit and screened measuring circuits.
3. Common instruments to measure high resistances include megohmmeters, which apply a voltage and measure the leakage current, and earth testers, which measure earth electrode resistance using auxiliary electrodes.
The document provides an overview of basic electronics topics including analog and digital electronics. In analog electronics, it discusses components such as resistors, capacitors, inductors, diodes and transistors. It describes resistors and how to identify resistor values using color bands. It explains capacitors and inductors, how they store energy, and their symbols. It provides details on diodes, including their construction, characteristics curve, and forward and reverse bias operation. The document also briefly introduces digital electronics and logic gates.
This document provides information about biopotential electrodes used for measuring bioelectric signals from the body. It discusses the electrode-skin interface and equivalent circuit, sources of noise and offset voltages, and classifications of electrodes including microelectrodes for single-cell measurements, skin surface electrodes like limb electrodes and suction cups for ECG, and needle electrodes for acute internal measurements. It also covers topics like the stable silver-silver chloride electrode, effects of polarization, and ensuring high amplifier input impedance.
The document provides information about the ESL 130 Electrical and Electronics Workshop course. It outlines the continuous internal evaluation pattern which includes attendance, classwork assessment, and end semester exams. It then lists the various exercises and experiments covered in the course, including familiarization of electronic components, circuit diagram drawing, use of testing instruments, component testing, soldering practices, printed circuit boards, and assembling electronic circuits. Key components discussed include resistors, capacitors, inductors, diodes, transistors, integrated circuits, and various connectors.
This presentation includes Electrical services basic layout and basic terminologies related to electrical services and its also includes types of wiring and system of wiring....
This document discusses resistors, including their history, types, uses, and color coding. It aims to determine resistor values using color codes, describe resistors and how to use them, and discuss the history of resistors with examples. Resistors are described as passive components that limit current flow. Their history is outlined from Georg Ohm's work in the 1820s to Otis Boykin's resistor patents in the 1950s-60s. Types of resistors covered include carbon composition, carbon film, metal film, and wire wound resistors. Their advantages and disadvantages are compared. Reasons for using resistors and how to use them are explained. Color coding of resistors is also discussed.
This document contains the overview and introduction presented by Mohankumar V for the Network Theory course. It outlines the syllabus, including topics covered, evaluation criteria, prerequisites and outcomes. The class covered basic concepts in network theory including different electrical elements, circuit simplification techniques using source transformation, and provided examples applying these techniques.
A piezoelectric sensor uses the piezoelectric effect to convert changes in pressure, acceleration, temperature, strain or force into an electrical charge. Piezoelectric sensors are versatile tools that are used for quality assurance, process control, and research and development across many industries. They have limitations for static measurements but are otherwise a mature and reliable sensing technology. Piezoresistive sensors undergo a change in electrical resistance when subjected to mechanical strain, and are commonly used in integrated circuits made from piezoresistive materials like silicon.
This document provides an overview of the Basic Electronics course EEE-231. The key details are:
- The course is 3 credit hours with lectures, quizzes, assignments, and exams throughout the semester. Minimum 80% attendance is required to sit for the final exam.
- The course will cover fundamentals of semiconductor physics, diodes, transistors, amplifiers, and digital circuits.
- Two textbooks are required for the course. Prerequisites include knowledge of DC circuit analysis.
The document provides information on smart hospital projects being undertaken in India. It discusses plans to build multi-specialty hospitals in major cities with modern infrastructure like power grids, building management systems, networking, data management, and patient information systems. It emphasizes the importance of electrical safety in hospitals through practices like maintenance-free earthing, exothermic welding, surge protection, and lightning protection. The presentation promotes JMV LPS Ltd.'s electrical safety products and solutions for smart hospitals and cities like copper-bonded grounding rods, jointing kits, lightning arrestors, and surge protection devices.
The document discusses smart hospital projects in India that incorporate various electrical safety and networking technologies. Key points include:
- India's plan to build multi-specialty hospitals in major cities with modern infrastructure, including power grids, backup generators, solar/wind power, building management systems, and networking.
- The projects will implement best practices for electrical safety such as maintenance-free earthing systems, minimized joints, surge protection, and lightning protection according to international standards.
- Various electrical equipment, medical facilities, water/waste systems, parking, and other infrastructure will be incorporated using smart communication and networking.
This document provides instructions for an experiment to verify Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL) using a circuit connected to a breadboard. The experiment uses a regulated DC power supply, digital multimeter, resistors, and connecting wires to build the KCL circuit. Students are asked to take voltage and current readings at different points in the circuit and use KCL calculations to determine if the experiment's observations match the theory. The objectives are to introduce students to KCL, demonstrate a KCL circuit, and have students practice applying KCL calculations.
This document provides an overview of basic electronics concepts including:
- Electricity is the flow of electrons through conductors caused by an imbalance of charges between two points.
- Materials are classified as conductors, insulators or semiconductors based on how tightly electrons are bound to atoms.
- Key concepts like voltage, current, resistance and their relationships are explained using Ohm's Law.
- Components like resistors, capacitors, inductors and their functions in circuits are introduced.
- Circuit analysis techniques like series, parallel and series-parallel combinations are demonstrated.
Seminar photovoltaic and temprature gradient sensorkarthikaramkumar1
PHOTOVOLTAIC SENSOR AND TEMPERATURE GRADIENT SENSOR IS USED FOR MEASURING INPUTS FROM PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT WHICH IS MOST POPULAR IN ITS APPLICATIONS SUCH AS LED LIGHTENING AND WHITE LED'S.
The document introduces the basic electronic components including breadboards, resistors, capacitors, diodes, triodes, transistors, LEDs, coils, transformers, switches, relays, and integrated circuits. It provides brief descriptions of each component, their symbols and functions. Resistors limit current, capacitors store energy, diodes allow current to pass in one direction, transistors amplify signals, and integrated circuits combine multiple electronic components into a single chip. The document serves to familiarize readers with fundamental building blocks of electronics.
This document provides an overview of electromagnetic interference (EMI) and electromagnetic compatibility (EMC). It discusses sources of EMI such as atmospheric noise from lightning and clouds. It also describes four coupling mechanisms by which EMI can occur: conductive, capacitive, inductive, and radiative. Techniques for controlling EMI are then outlined, including grounding, shielding, and filtering. Finally, the document discusses methods for EMC testing, including evaluating emissions and susceptibility through radiated field, conducted, and transient immunity testing.
The document introduces the basic electronic components including breadboards, resistors, capacitors, diodes, triodes, transistors, LEDs, coils, transformers, switches, relays, and integrated circuits. It provides brief descriptions of each component, including their symbols and functions. Resistors limit current, capacitors store energy, diodes allow current to pass in one direction, and transistors amplify signals. Together, these components form the building blocks of modern electronic circuits and devices.
This document discusses electrical safety of medical equipment. It notes that electrical accidents cause many deaths and injuries each year. For medical devices, electrical hazards can lead to 10,000 injuries annually in the US. The document outlines physiological effects of electric shock, standards and regulations for medical equipment, and recommendations for improving electrical safety in equipment design such as reliable grounding, low-voltage operation, and electrical isolation of patient circuits.
This is chapter 21 which is a topic on electric fields and it was obtained from the book 'university physics with modern physics' and it is very useful to help understand the content better.
This document contains the syllabus for Dr. Ali Younis' electrical engineering class in the first term of 2020. It includes details like class times, assessments, textbooks, and a full list of topics to be covered. The topics range from basic concepts like units and components to more advanced subjects like capacitors, inductors, and transformers. Assessment is based on exams, homework, quizzes, and a final exam. Office hours and contact information are also provided.
This document discusses electrical safety and hazards. It defines key electrical terms and outlines major causes of electrical accidents such as work on live circuits and damaged power cables. Electrical hazards like shock and burns are explained along with minimizing risks through grounding, locking out equipment, and using personal protective equipment. Precautions for portable generators and avoiding unsafe acts are also covered.
#Building wiring system#presentation#Wire is a single electrical conductor, w...Bint Shameem
#An “electrical power system” can be defined as a network of electrical components used to supply, transform, transfer and distribute electrical energy. An “electrical wiring system” instead, is responsible for powering specific elements within a system, that need electricity to work.
This document discusses different types of electrodes used to measure electrical activity in the body. It describes various classifications of transducers including passive vs active, absolute vs relative, direct vs complex, analog vs digital, and primary vs secondary. It also explains different electrode principles such as capacitive, inductive, and resistive. The document outlines types of electrodes like surface electrodes, needle electrodes, and microelectrodes and provides examples of each. It discusses factors to consider when selecting a transducer and electrodes used to measure specific physiological variables.
Domestic wiring refers to wiring done in homes to provide electrical power for lighting, fans, and appliances safely. The choice of wiring is affected by factors like durability, electrical safety, appearance, cost, accessibility, maintenance cost, and mechanical safety. Common types of wiring include parallel wiring, switch wiring, and series wiring. Basic home circuits use live, neutral, and earth wires. Safety measures for circuits include earthing appliances, fuses to prevent overloading and short circuits, and circuit breakers.
The document discusses electrical accidents in India, their causes, and measures to prevent them. It provides statistics showing that most accidents occur at the distribution level and are caused by accidental contact with live wires or equipment. Common issues contributing to accidents include lack of maintenance, unprotected equipment, and unauthorized construction near power lines. The text recommends safety measures like proper insulation, grounding, use of protective devices, maintaining clearance from lines, and increasing public education through sensitization workshops.
This document discusses electromagnetic interference (EMI) issues in semiconductor manufacturing facilities. It describes what EMI is and how it can manifest as equipment malfunctions. Common sources of EMI in cleanrooms include electrostatic discharge events, poorly designed/installed/maintained equipment, and mobile phones. For effective EMI management, the document stresses considering EMI sources, propagation paths, and susceptible targets using comprehensive approaches like proper equipment and facility grounding.
Assessment and Planning in Educational technology.pptxKavitha Krishnan
In an education system, it is understood that assessment is only for the students, but on the other hand, the Assessment of teachers is also an important aspect of the education system that ensures teachers are providing high-quality instruction to students. The assessment process can be used to provide feedback and support for professional development, to inform decisions about teacher retention or promotion, or to evaluate teacher effectiveness for accountability purposes.
This slide is special for master students (MIBS & MIFB) in UUM. Also useful for readers who are interested in the topic of contemporary Islamic banking.
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A piezoelectric sensor uses the piezoelectric effect to convert changes in pressure, acceleration, temperature, strain or force into an electrical charge. Piezoelectric sensors are versatile tools that are used for quality assurance, process control, and research and development across many industries. They have limitations for static measurements but are otherwise a mature and reliable sensing technology. Piezoresistive sensors undergo a change in electrical resistance when subjected to mechanical strain, and are commonly used in integrated circuits made from piezoresistive materials like silicon.
This document provides an overview of the Basic Electronics course EEE-231. The key details are:
- The course is 3 credit hours with lectures, quizzes, assignments, and exams throughout the semester. Minimum 80% attendance is required to sit for the final exam.
- The course will cover fundamentals of semiconductor physics, diodes, transistors, amplifiers, and digital circuits.
- Two textbooks are required for the course. Prerequisites include knowledge of DC circuit analysis.
The document provides information on smart hospital projects being undertaken in India. It discusses plans to build multi-specialty hospitals in major cities with modern infrastructure like power grids, building management systems, networking, data management, and patient information systems. It emphasizes the importance of electrical safety in hospitals through practices like maintenance-free earthing, exothermic welding, surge protection, and lightning protection. The presentation promotes JMV LPS Ltd.'s electrical safety products and solutions for smart hospitals and cities like copper-bonded grounding rods, jointing kits, lightning arrestors, and surge protection devices.
The document discusses smart hospital projects in India that incorporate various electrical safety and networking technologies. Key points include:
- India's plan to build multi-specialty hospitals in major cities with modern infrastructure, including power grids, backup generators, solar/wind power, building management systems, and networking.
- The projects will implement best practices for electrical safety such as maintenance-free earthing systems, minimized joints, surge protection, and lightning protection according to international standards.
- Various electrical equipment, medical facilities, water/waste systems, parking, and other infrastructure will be incorporated using smart communication and networking.
This document provides instructions for an experiment to verify Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL) using a circuit connected to a breadboard. The experiment uses a regulated DC power supply, digital multimeter, resistors, and connecting wires to build the KCL circuit. Students are asked to take voltage and current readings at different points in the circuit and use KCL calculations to determine if the experiment's observations match the theory. The objectives are to introduce students to KCL, demonstrate a KCL circuit, and have students practice applying KCL calculations.
This document provides an overview of basic electronics concepts including:
- Electricity is the flow of electrons through conductors caused by an imbalance of charges between two points.
- Materials are classified as conductors, insulators or semiconductors based on how tightly electrons are bound to atoms.
- Key concepts like voltage, current, resistance and their relationships are explained using Ohm's Law.
- Components like resistors, capacitors, inductors and their functions in circuits are introduced.
- Circuit analysis techniques like series, parallel and series-parallel combinations are demonstrated.
Seminar photovoltaic and temprature gradient sensorkarthikaramkumar1
PHOTOVOLTAIC SENSOR AND TEMPERATURE GRADIENT SENSOR IS USED FOR MEASURING INPUTS FROM PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT WHICH IS MOST POPULAR IN ITS APPLICATIONS SUCH AS LED LIGHTENING AND WHITE LED'S.
The document introduces the basic electronic components including breadboards, resistors, capacitors, diodes, triodes, transistors, LEDs, coils, transformers, switches, relays, and integrated circuits. It provides brief descriptions of each component, their symbols and functions. Resistors limit current, capacitors store energy, diodes allow current to pass in one direction, transistors amplify signals, and integrated circuits combine multiple electronic components into a single chip. The document serves to familiarize readers with fundamental building blocks of electronics.
This document provides an overview of electromagnetic interference (EMI) and electromagnetic compatibility (EMC). It discusses sources of EMI such as atmospheric noise from lightning and clouds. It also describes four coupling mechanisms by which EMI can occur: conductive, capacitive, inductive, and radiative. Techniques for controlling EMI are then outlined, including grounding, shielding, and filtering. Finally, the document discusses methods for EMC testing, including evaluating emissions and susceptibility through radiated field, conducted, and transient immunity testing.
The document introduces the basic electronic components including breadboards, resistors, capacitors, diodes, triodes, transistors, LEDs, coils, transformers, switches, relays, and integrated circuits. It provides brief descriptions of each component, including their symbols and functions. Resistors limit current, capacitors store energy, diodes allow current to pass in one direction, and transistors amplify signals. Together, these components form the building blocks of modern electronic circuits and devices.
This document discusses electrical safety of medical equipment. It notes that electrical accidents cause many deaths and injuries each year. For medical devices, electrical hazards can lead to 10,000 injuries annually in the US. The document outlines physiological effects of electric shock, standards and regulations for medical equipment, and recommendations for improving electrical safety in equipment design such as reliable grounding, low-voltage operation, and electrical isolation of patient circuits.
This is chapter 21 which is a topic on electric fields and it was obtained from the book 'university physics with modern physics' and it is very useful to help understand the content better.
This document contains the syllabus for Dr. Ali Younis' electrical engineering class in the first term of 2020. It includes details like class times, assessments, textbooks, and a full list of topics to be covered. The topics range from basic concepts like units and components to more advanced subjects like capacitors, inductors, and transformers. Assessment is based on exams, homework, quizzes, and a final exam. Office hours and contact information are also provided.
This document discusses electrical safety and hazards. It defines key electrical terms and outlines major causes of electrical accidents such as work on live circuits and damaged power cables. Electrical hazards like shock and burns are explained along with minimizing risks through grounding, locking out equipment, and using personal protective equipment. Precautions for portable generators and avoiding unsafe acts are also covered.
#Building wiring system#presentation#Wire is a single electrical conductor, w...Bint Shameem
#An “electrical power system” can be defined as a network of electrical components used to supply, transform, transfer and distribute electrical energy. An “electrical wiring system” instead, is responsible for powering specific elements within a system, that need electricity to work.
This document discusses different types of electrodes used to measure electrical activity in the body. It describes various classifications of transducers including passive vs active, absolute vs relative, direct vs complex, analog vs digital, and primary vs secondary. It also explains different electrode principles such as capacitive, inductive, and resistive. The document outlines types of electrodes like surface electrodes, needle electrodes, and microelectrodes and provides examples of each. It discusses factors to consider when selecting a transducer and electrodes used to measure specific physiological variables.
Domestic wiring refers to wiring done in homes to provide electrical power for lighting, fans, and appliances safely. The choice of wiring is affected by factors like durability, electrical safety, appearance, cost, accessibility, maintenance cost, and mechanical safety. Common types of wiring include parallel wiring, switch wiring, and series wiring. Basic home circuits use live, neutral, and earth wires. Safety measures for circuits include earthing appliances, fuses to prevent overloading and short circuits, and circuit breakers.
The document discusses electrical accidents in India, their causes, and measures to prevent them. It provides statistics showing that most accidents occur at the distribution level and are caused by accidental contact with live wires or equipment. Common issues contributing to accidents include lack of maintenance, unprotected equipment, and unauthorized construction near power lines. The text recommends safety measures like proper insulation, grounding, use of protective devices, maintaining clearance from lines, and increasing public education through sensitization workshops.
This document discusses electromagnetic interference (EMI) issues in semiconductor manufacturing facilities. It describes what EMI is and how it can manifest as equipment malfunctions. Common sources of EMI in cleanrooms include electrostatic discharge events, poorly designed/installed/maintained equipment, and mobile phones. For effective EMI management, the document stresses considering EMI sources, propagation paths, and susceptible targets using comprehensive approaches like proper equipment and facility grounding.
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Assessment and Planning in Educational technology.pptxKavitha Krishnan
In an education system, it is understood that assessment is only for the students, but on the other hand, the Assessment of teachers is also an important aspect of the education system that ensures teachers are providing high-quality instruction to students. The assessment process can be used to provide feedback and support for professional development, to inform decisions about teacher retention or promotion, or to evaluate teacher effectiveness for accountability purposes.
This slide is special for master students (MIBS & MIFB) in UUM. Also useful for readers who are interested in the topic of contemporary Islamic banking.
Executive Directors Chat Leveraging AI for Diversity, Equity, and InclusionTechSoup
Let’s explore the intersection of technology and equity in the final session of our DEI series. Discover how AI tools, like ChatGPT, can be used to support and enhance your nonprofit's DEI initiatives. Participants will gain insights into practical AI applications and get tips for leveraging technology to advance their DEI goals.
Strategies for Effective Upskilling is a presentation by Chinwendu Peace in a Your Skill Boost Masterclass organisation by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan on 08th and 09th June 2024 from 1 PM to 3 PM on each day.
A workshop hosted by the South African Journal of Science aimed at postgraduate students and early career researchers with little or no experience in writing and publishing journal articles.
This presentation includes basic of PCOS their pathology and treatment and also Ayurveda correlation of PCOS and Ayurvedic line of treatment mentioned in classics.
it describes the bony anatomy including the femoral head , acetabulum, labrum . also discusses the capsule , ligaments . muscle that act on the hip joint and the range of motion are outlined. factors affecting hip joint stability and weight transmission through the joint are summarized.
বাংলাদেশের অর্থনৈতিক সমীক্ষা ২০২৪ [Bangladesh Economic Review 2024 Bangla.pdf] কম্পিউটার , ট্যাব ও স্মার্ট ফোন ভার্সন সহ সম্পূর্ণ বাংলা ই-বুক বা pdf বই " সুচিপত্র ...বুকমার্ক মেনু 🔖 ও হাইপার লিংক মেনু 📝👆 যুক্ত ..
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ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, and GDPR: Best Practices for Implementation and...PECB
Denis is a dynamic and results-driven Chief Information Officer (CIO) with a distinguished career spanning information systems analysis and technical project management. With a proven track record of spearheading the design and delivery of cutting-edge Information Management solutions, he has consistently elevated business operations, streamlined reporting functions, and maximized process efficiency.
Certified as an ISO/IEC 27001: Information Security Management Systems (ISMS) Lead Implementer, Data Protection Officer, and Cyber Risks Analyst, Denis brings a heightened focus on data security, privacy, and cyber resilience to every endeavor.
His expertise extends across a diverse spectrum of reporting, database, and web development applications, underpinned by an exceptional grasp of data storage and virtualization technologies. His proficiency in application testing, database administration, and data cleansing ensures seamless execution of complex projects.
What sets Denis apart is his comprehensive understanding of Business and Systems Analysis technologies, honed through involvement in all phases of the Software Development Lifecycle (SDLC). From meticulous requirements gathering to precise analysis, innovative design, rigorous development, thorough testing, and successful implementation, he has consistently delivered exceptional results.
Throughout his career, he has taken on multifaceted roles, from leading technical project management teams to owning solutions that drive operational excellence. His conscientious and proactive approach is unwavering, whether he is working independently or collaboratively within a team. His ability to connect with colleagues on a personal level underscores his commitment to fostering a harmonious and productive workplace environment.
Date: May 29, 2024
Tags: Information Security, ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, Artificial Intelligence, GDPR
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Macroeconomics- Movie Location
This will be used as part of your Personal Professional Portfolio once graded.
Objective:
Prepare a presentation or a paper using research, basic comparative analysis, data organization and application of economic information. You will make an informed assessment of an economic climate outside of the United States to accomplish an entertainment industry objective.
How to Manage Your Lost Opportunities in Odoo 17 CRMCeline George
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A review of the growth of the Israel Genealogy Research Association Database Collection for the last 12 months. Our collection is now passed the 3 million mark and still growing. See which archives have contributed the most. See the different types of records we have, and which years have had records added. You can also see what we have for the future.
1. EST 130
Part II – Electronics
Module 4 - Basic electronic circuits and instrumentation
25-03-2024 Prof. Agi Joseph George | AP | ECE | AJCE 1
2. Introduction:
• Almost every object we touch in our day-to-day life carries electronics in
it - television, an air cooler, a refrigerator, a microwave oven, or an
automobile
• Electron – smallest amount of electric charge having the characteristic
called negative polarity.
• Proton - basic particle with positive polarity.
• the arrangement of electrons and protons determines the electrical
characteristics of all substances.
• For example, the paper you use has electrons and protons in it. But no
evidence of electricity. WHY?
25-03-2024 Prof. Agi Joseph George | AP | ECE | AJCE 2
3. Introduction contd…:
• The word Electronics comes from “electron mechanics”
• means learning the way how an electron behaves under different conditions of
externally applied electric or magnetic field
• Definition by IRE(Institution of Radio Engineers)
• that field of science and engineering, which deals with electron devices and their
utilization
• Capabilities of electron devices:
• Rectification (AC to DC conversion),
• Amplification (strengthening of a weak signal),
• Generation (conversion of DC to AC power of any frequency),
• Control and conversion of light into electricity and vice versa.
25-03-2024 Prof. Agi Joseph George | AP | ECE | AJCE 3
4. EVOLUTION OF ELECTRONICS:
• 1890 - First exp. on generation of electromagnetic waves.
• 1894 - Sir J C Bose discovered the propagation of radio waves
• 1894 - Marconi postulated the theory of radio wave propagation
• 1895 - H A Lorentz postulated the existence of electron
• 1897 - J. J. Thomson verified the existence of electron
• 1897 - Braun invented the first electron tube
• 1904 - Fleming invented the diode called valve which was initially based
on Edison’s discovery in 1883 (Edison’s effect).
• 1907 – Lee De Forest invented a 3-electrode vacuum tube that was
capable of amplifying radio signals – Audion.
25-03-2024 Prof. Agi Joseph George | AP | ECE | AJCE 4
5. EVOLUTION OF ELECTRONICS:
• 1947 - invention of the transistor by John Bardeen, Walter H. Brattain,
and William B. Shockley at Bell laboratories. Semiconductor revolution.
• Late 1950s - research on the purification of silicon succeeded =>
semiconductor devices.
• 1958 - invention of the integrated circuit (IC) independently by Jack
Kilby of Texas Instruments Incorporated.
• 1960 - vacuum tubes were rapidly being supplanted by transistors.
• 1970 - up to 1,000 transistors on a chip of the same size at no increase in
cost.
• Continued advances in IC technology gave rise to very large-scale
integration (VLSI) and nano-electronics.
25-03-2024 Prof. Agi Joseph George | AP | ECE | AJCE 5
6. EVOLUTION OF Transistors:
• 1947:
• Brattain and Bardeen invented point-contact transistor.
• Shockley discovered junction transistor
• 1950:
• First junction transistor was invented
• 1951:
• Transistor produced commercially (first germanium and then silicon)
• 1958:
• Kilby (Texas Instruments, USA) gave the idea of monolithic IC
• 1961:
• Fairchild and T.I. commercially produced integrated circuits.
25-03-2024 Prof. Agi Joseph George | AP | ECE | AJCE 6
8. Application of Electronics:
• Entertainment & communication:
• Smart TV
• MODEM
• Set Top Box
• Laptop
• Mobiles
• Printer
• Scanner
• Digital Cameras
25-03-2024 Prof. Agi Joseph George | AP | ECE | AJCE 8
9. Application of Electronics:
• Defence:
• RADAR and electronic warfare,
• autonomous weapons,
• guidance and control systems or
• secure communications.
• Surveillance systems
25-03-2024 Prof. Agi Joseph George | AP | ECE | AJCE 9
10. Application of Electronics:
• Industrial:
• Industrial automation and motion control,
• Machine learning,
• motor drive control,
• Mechatronics and robotics,
• Power converting technologies,
• Photo voltaic systems,
• Renewable energy applications,
• Power electronics,
• Biomechanics
• Smart grid
25-03-2024 Prof. Agi Joseph George | AP | ECE | AJCE 10
11. Application of Electronics:
• Medical:
• Anesthesia
• Respiratory monitoring
• Blood pressure analysis
• Oxygen level measurement in the body
• Imaging in diagnostics like MRI, ultrasound, etc
• Stress measurement
25-03-2024 Prof. Agi Joseph George | AP | ECE | AJCE 11
12. Application of Electronics:
• Instrumentation:
• cathode ray oscilloscope (CROs),
• frequency counters,
• pulse and signal generators,
• digital multimeters,
• power supplies,
• pH meters,
• strain gauges
25-03-2024 Prof. Agi Joseph George | AP | ECE | AJCE 12
13. ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS:
• electronic component - any basic discrete device in an electronic system
used to affect electrons or their associated fields.
• are mostly industrial products, available in a singular form
• have several electrical terminals or leads
• Basic electronic components may be packaged
• discretely,
• as arrays or networks of like components, or
• integrated inside of packages such as semiconductor integrated circuits, hybrid
integrated circuits, or thick film devices
25-03-2024 Prof. Agi Joseph George | AP | ECE | AJCE 13
15. Electronic Components - types:
• Active:
• rely on a source of energy
• an inject power into a circuit such as amplification or processing.
• E.g.: transistors, triode vacuum tubes (valves), tunnel diodes, Integrated Circuits
or ICs, Logic Gates
• Passive:
• cannot introduce net energy into the circuit
• rely on a source of power, from the (AC) circuit they are connected to.
• they cannot amplify
• although they may increase a voltage or current
• E.g. : resistors, capacitors, inductors, transformers, diodes
25-03-2024 Prof. Agi Joseph George | AP | ECE | AJCE 15
17. Resistors:
• used in a wide variety of applications in all types of electronic circuits.
• main function in any circuit is to
• limit the amount of current
• produce a desired drop in voltage
• manufactured in a variety of shapes and sizes
• No direct correlation between the physical size of a resistor and its
resistance value.
• two main characteristics of a resistor are
• its resistance R in ohms (fraction of an ohm to megaohms) and
• its power rating in watts (W).
• Dissipation means that the power is wasted, since the resultant
heat is not used
25-03-2024 Prof. Agi Joseph George | AP | ECE | AJCE 17
18. Resistors – principle of operation:
• foundation for all circuit analysis in electronics.
• Ohm’s law states that
• the current through a conductor between two points is directly proportional to
the voltage across the two points.
• V=I * R
25-03-2024 Prof. Agi Joseph George | AP | ECE | AJCE 18
19. Resistors – specifications:
• Resistance Value:
• The value of a resistor is its value expressed in ohms.
• Tolerance:
• It is the percentage deviation from the rated value.
• Power Rating:
• Maximum power that the resistor can dissipate safely
• Voltage Rating:
• Maximum voltage that can be applied across a resistor
25-03-2024 Prof. Agi Joseph George | AP | ECE | AJCE 19
22. Resistors – Fixed:
• are resistors with a specific value.
• one of the most widely used types of resistor.
• used in electronics circuits to set the correct conditions in a circuit
25-03-2024 Prof. Agi Joseph George | AP | ECE | AJCE 22
23. Carbon composition resistors:
• solid cylindrical resistive element is covered with plastic to protect the
resistor from outside heat.
• made from the mixture of carbon or graphite powder and ceramic (made
of clay).
• carbon powder acts as the good conductor of electric current.
• available with different resistance values ranging from one ohm (1Ω) to
22-Mega ohms (22 MΩ)
• Resistance of the carbon composition resistor is depends on three
factors:
• amount of carbon added,
• length of solid cylindrical rod, and
• cross sectional area of the solid cylindrical rod
25-03-2024 Prof. Agi Joseph George | AP | ECE | AJCE 23
25. Carbon composition resistors:
• Advantages:
• Small size
• Wide resistance range is available
• Cheap
• Good RF performance
• Disadvantages:
• No precision and high tolerance
• Gets easily heated and crack down on soldering
• Resistance value vary with aging
• Not useful for applications involving power levels above 5 watts
25-03-2024 Prof. Agi Joseph George | AP | ECE | AJCE 25
26. Carbon Film resistors:
• A thin pure film of carbon is deposited onto a small ceramic rod.
• The resistive coating is spiraled away until the two ends of the rod is as close
as possible to the correct value
25-03-2024 Prof. Agi Joseph George | AP | ECE | AJCE 26
27. Carbon film resistors:
• Advantages:
• Available in all resistor values
• Available in miniature size
• Good high frequency properties
• Accuracy with respect to carbon composition
• Low cost
• Disadvantages:
• Cannot withstand high temperatures
• Vulnerable to mechanical shocks
• Vulnerable to atmospheric moisture and humidity
• Chemically reactive and hence unstable
25-03-2024 Prof. Agi Joseph George | AP | ECE | AJCE 27
28. Metal Film resistors:
• usually made of Nichrome, but also other materials such as tantalum
nitride is used.
• The resistive film is printed on a cylindrical or flat insulating substrate.
• The resistive material is a combination of a Ceramic material and a
Metal, also referred to as Cermet.
• stability, temperature coefficient and tolerance are better than for carbon
film.
25-03-2024 Prof. Agi Joseph George | AP | ECE | AJCE 28
30. Wire wound resistors:
• A wire with a high resistivity is wrapped around an insulating core to
provide resistance.
• Available in very low ohmic high precision values
• resistive wire is usually a nickel-chromium alloy, and the core is often
ceramic or fiberglass.
• spiral winding has capacitive and inductive effects that makes it not
suitable for applications higher than 50 kHz.
• Wirewound resistors are often produced for high precision or high
power applications.
• They have low noise, are robust, and are temperature stable
25-03-2024 Prof. Agi Joseph George | AP | ECE | AJCE 30
32. Color coding:
• Bands of color are used to represent the resistance value
• 1st and 2nd band – Numerical value of the resistance
• 3rd band – Power-of-ten multiplier
• 4th and 5th band – Percentage tolerance of the resistor
25-03-2024 Prof. Agi Joseph George | AP | ECE | AJCE 32
35. Variable resistors:
• Value of the resistor can be changed during its usage
• normally works by sliding a contact (wiper) over a resistive element.
• Consists of 3 terminals
• Two terminals are fixed. Third one is connected to a movable cap which
slides along the element
• Potentiometers
• Rheostats
25-03-2024 Prof. Agi Joseph George | AP | ECE | AJCE 35
36. Carbon Composition Potentiometer:
• Two types:
• Coated film
• Moulded
• functions as a resistive divider
• used to generate a voltage signal depending on the position of the
potentiometer
• Applications: amplifier gain control (audio volume), tuning of circuits.
25-03-2024 Prof. Agi Joseph George | AP | ECE | AJCE 36
37. Coated film:
• On a ring of insulating material, a mixture of carbon filler and binder is
coated.
• The surface of the film is processed to avoid abrasion
• For contact, material used is brass or phosphor bronze.
25-03-2024 Prof. Agi Joseph George | AP | ECE | AJCE 37
38. Moulded:
• Carbon composition material is moulded in a cavity in a plastic base
• Carbon brush is used as moving tap
• Sealed to prevent the effects of moisture
25-03-2024 Prof. Agi Joseph George | AP | ECE | AJCE 38
39. Wire wound Potentiometer:
• A flat strip is bent into circular form after winding
• For a flat strip, insulating material is used (synthetic resin bonded sheet)
• Can be used only up to 50kHz
25-03-2024 Prof. Agi Joseph George | AP | ECE | AJCE 39
40. Wire wound Potentiometer:
• To have different resistance range, one has to change
• Diameter of the wire
• Cross section of the core
• Spacing between wires
• Turns on the core
• Length of the core
• Type of wire used
25-03-2024 Prof. Agi Joseph George | AP | ECE | AJCE 40
42. Rheostat:
• Used in applications that require the adjustment of current or the
varying of resistance in an electric circuit
25-03-2024 Prof. Agi Joseph George | AP | ECE | AJCE 42
43. Rheostat:
• On a round or hexagonal former, windings of oxidized Ni-Cu are put up
• Former may be of ceramic or enameled steel
• Sliding contact on a metal bar selects the desired resistance value
• Current range: 0.1A to 20A
• Resistance range: 0.5Ω to 10KΩ
25-03-2024 Prof. Agi Joseph George | AP | ECE | AJCE 43
44. Thermistor:
• Type of resistor whose resistance varies significantly with temperature
• Made of
• metallic oxides,
• pressed into a bead, disk, or cylindrical shape and
• then encapsulated with an impermeable material such as epoxy or glass
• Two types:
• Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC)
• Positive Temperature Coefficient (PTC)
• NTC: When temp inc, resistance decreases
• PTC: When temp inc, resistance increases
• Used as a fuse
25-03-2024 Prof. Agi Joseph George | AP | ECE | AJCE 44
46. Thermistor - applications:
• Temperature sensing circuit
• Temperature compensators
• Liquid level detector
• Time delay circuit
25-03-2024 Prof. Agi Joseph George | AP | ECE | AJCE 46
47. Photoresistors:
• Also known as light dependent resistors (LDR)
• Light sensitive devices used to indicate the presence or absence of light,
or to measure light intensity
• In the dark, the resistance is very high (1MΩ)
• When exposed to light, resistance decreases (to a few ohms)
25-03-2024 Prof. Agi Joseph George | AP | ECE | AJCE 47
49. Photoresistors:
• Made of high resistance semiconductor
• When incident light exceeds a certain frequency, photons absorbed by
the semiconductor give the bound electrons enough energy to jump into
the conduction band
• The resulting free electrons conduct electricity, thereby lowering
resistance
25-03-2024 Prof. Agi Joseph George | AP | ECE | AJCE 49
50. Varistor:
• Electrical component with an electrical resistivity that varies with the
applied voltage
• Also known as voltage dependent resistor (VDR)
• Has characteristics similar to that of a diode
• At low voltage, it has high resistance which decreases as the voltage is
raised
• Used as spike guard in plugs to protect appliances from high voltage or
lightning
25-03-2024 Prof. Agi Joseph George | AP | ECE | AJCE 50
53. Capacitor:
• a two-terminal passive electronic component.
• can store electrical energy in an electric field.
• was originally known as a condenser or condensator
• The ability of a conducting body to accumulate
charge is known as capacitance.
• capacitance value of a capacitor is:
• C = Q/V
• Charge accumulation depends on the plate area
and spacing
25-03-2024 Prof. Agi Joseph George | AP | ECE | AJCE 53
54. Capacitor vs Battery:
• A capacitor stores potential energy in an electric field, while a battery
stores it in a chemical form.
• Batteries store and distribute energy in a linear fashion, while capacitors
release energy in bursts.
• A battery has a better energy density than a capacitor, which means it can
store more energy per unit volume.
• A capacitor is generally used for filtering applications, while batteries are
used as a power supply.
• A battery is an active device as it can supply energy for a continuous
period, while a capacitor is a passive component.
25-03-2024 Prof. Agi Joseph George | AP | ECE | AJCE 54
55. Capacitor – theory of operation:
• Capacitor consists of two parallel conductors separated by a dielectric
• Examples of dielectric are glass, air, paper, vacuum, ceramic, and even a
semiconductor depletion region, etc.
• When a voltage is applied across the capacitor plates, the electrons
accumulate on the side of the capacitor connected to the negative
terminal of the voltage source.
• This accumulation process of electrons at one end is called charging
• This continues until the potential difference across the capacitor is equal
to the applied voltage
25-03-2024 Prof. Agi Joseph George | AP | ECE | AJCE 55
56. Capacitor – theory of operation:
25-03-2024 Prof. Agi Joseph George | AP | ECE | AJCE 56
57. Capacitor – Specifications:
• Voltage Rating: Maximum voltage that can be applied across a capacitor
without damaging its dielectric
• Tolerance: The accepted deviation from the printed value of capacitor
• Power factor: indicates the minimum loss in the capacitor.
• Frequency Range: the maximum frequency up to which the capacitor can
work safely.
• Dielectric Constant: property of the dielectric that affects the capacitance
value
25-03-2024 Prof. Agi Joseph George | AP | ECE | AJCE 57
59. Fixed Capacitor:
• Capacitance value cannot be varied mechanically or by any other external
means
• The dielectric is permanently kept in between two fixed plates.
• Depending on the type of dielectric used, the properties of the capacitor
can change
• Can be:
• Polar
• Non-polar
25-03-2024 Prof. Agi Joseph George | AP | ECE | AJCE 59
60. Paper Capacitor:
• Made by:
• two long metal foils which are separated by wax paper strips and
• rolled together to take a cylindrical shape
• Connecting leads are joined to each metal foil and the capacitor is
wrapped with a suitable resin binder
25-03-2024 Prof. Agi Joseph George | AP | ECE | AJCE 60
62. Paper Capacitor:
• Advantages:
• Very cheap
• Readily available in bulk quantities.
• Can withstand high voltages.
• Disadvantages:
• Bulky.
• Poor high frequency characteristics.
25-03-2024 Prof. Agi Joseph George | AP | ECE | AJCE 62
63. Mica Capacitor:
• The dielectric consists of thin rectangular sheets of mica.
• The electrodes are either:
• thin sheets of metal foil stacked alternately with mica sheets or
• thin deposits of silver applied to one surface of each mica sheets.
• The mica sheets and foils are sandwiched alternately.
25-03-2024 Prof. Agi Joseph George | AP | ECE | AJCE 63
65. Mica Capacitor:
• Advantages:
• Good mechanical strength.
• Can be operated to temperatures as high as 900ºC.
• Can withstand very high voltages.
• Suitable for very high frequency operation.
• Disadvantages:
• Mica is a natural mineral. It will get depleted as years pass on.
25-03-2024 Prof. Agi Joseph George | AP | ECE | AJCE 65
66. Ceramic Capacitor:
• Dielectric is a ceramic material
• Available in different sizes and shapes
• Ceramic dielectric is a compound of titanium, barium, magnesium and
strontium
• Conductor plates – aluminium, tin or silver
• Construction:
• A disc of ceramic material is taken
• On each surface, a metallized electrode is plated (Silver)
• Leads are attached by soldering
• After this, a coating of suitable resin is applied for protection against moisture
25-03-2024 Prof. Agi Joseph George | AP | ECE | AJCE 66
68. Ceramic Capacitor:
• Advantages:
• Can be formed into desired shape and size
• Capacitance value range from a few pF to a few nF
• Inexpensive
• Light weight
• Can withstand high voltages
• Disadvantages:
• Very high voltage ceramic capacitors are not available
• High capacitance values are not available
25-03-2024 Prof. Agi Joseph George | AP | ECE | AJCE 68
69. Polyester / Film / Plastic Capacitor:
• Uses polystyrene, polycarbonate or teflon as the dielectric
• The construction is similar to paper capacitor but use a plastic film
instead of paper
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70. Polyester / Film / Plastic Capacitor:
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71. Electrolytic Capacitor:
• Uses an electrolyte as one of its plates to achieve a larger capacitance per
unit volume than other types
• Used when very large capacitance values are required
• Polarized type.
• Two types:
• Aluminum electrolytic capacitors
• Tantalum electrolytic capacitors
25-03-2024 Prof. Agi Joseph George | AP | ECE | AJCE 71
72. Aluminium Electrolytic Capacitor:
• Two Al foils separated by insulating papers are rolled.
• One of the foils is the anode plate
• An oxide is coated on this anode, which acts as the dielectric
• This roll is saturated with electrolyte which acts as cathode
• Now the roll is stabilized and then sealed in an aluminium container
25-03-2024 Prof. Agi Joseph George | AP | ECE | AJCE 72
74. Tantalum Electrolytic Capacitor:
• Used in applications where size is of importance
• A film of oxide on tantalum is used
• Polarized
• Do not have high working voltages
• Capacitance range from 47nF to 470 μF
• Solid tantalum or a foil of tantalum is used
• Electrolyte may be wet or dry
25-03-2024 Prof. Agi Joseph George | AP | ECE | AJCE 74
81. Variable Capacitor:
• Capacitance value may be changed by some means
• Can be changed by:
• Varying area of the plates
• Adjusting the spacing between them
• Adjusting the thickness of the dielectric
• Dielectric – air, mica, ceramic or plastic
• Two types
• Ganged Capacitor – fixed air gap
• Trimmer Capacitor – fixed plate area
25-03-2024 Prof. Agi Joseph George | AP | ECE | AJCE 81
82. Gang Capacitor:
• Consists of 2 sets of metal plates
• One set of the plates is fixed and the other can be rotated by a shaft
• As the plates move in and out of the fixed plates, the capacitance value
varies
• Used in radio receivers for tuning different radio stations
25-03-2024 Prof. Agi Joseph George | AP | ECE | AJCE 82
83. Trimmers:
• Used for making fine adjustments on the total capacitance of a device
• Trimmer – 2 small flexible metal plates separated by a dielectric
• Spacing between the plates can be changed by means of a screw
adjustment
• 5pF to 30pF
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84. Padders:
• Padders are similar to trimmers but are larger in size
• Capacitance value – 10pF to 500pF
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86. Inductors:
• Two terminal passive electric device stores energy in the form of a
magnetic field.
• Principle:
• When current flows through a current carrying conductor, it generates a
magnetic field.
• This oppose any change in the current flowing through the conductor.
• This reaction of magnetic field is known as inductance.
• The resultant force is called induced emf.
• Unit of Inductance – Henry (H)
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87. Permeability:
• Any material let’s say iron when placed inside the magnetic field
possesses magnetism in itself.
• Iron has an ability to allow magnetic fields with high strength in itself,
and that’s why it has high permeability.
• While the material like Wood, Aluminium are reluctant to permit
magnetism in itself.
• Permeability is an ability of any material to permit the density of
the magnetic flux.
• Absolute permeability is related to the permeability of free space and is a
constant value which is given as μ0 = 4Π × 10-7 H.m-1
• Absolute permeability for other materials can be expressed relative to the
permeability of free space, μ = μ0μr
25-03-2024 Prof. Agi Joseph George | AP | ECE | AJCE 87
88. Factors affect the inductance of a coil:
• Number of turns in the coil.
• Diameter of the coil.
• Coil length.
• The type of material used in the core.
• Number of layers of winding in the coil.
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89. Relation between L,A,N and l :
• 𝑳 =
μ0μr AN2
𝒍
• where,
• L - the inductance
• A - the area of cross-section
• l - the length of core,
• N - the number of turns of the coil,
• μ0 - are the absolute permeability of core material and
• μr - relative permeability of the core material
25-03-2024 Prof. Agi Joseph George | AP | ECE | AJCE 89
90. Relation between L,A,N and l :
• When a current of I amperes flows through an inductor of L Henry is
changed at the rate of 𝑑𝑖/𝑑𝑡, due to which a counter emf ‘e’ volts is set
up, then the counter emf
• e = L
𝑑𝑖
𝑑𝑡
• Emf stands for electromotive force.
25-03-2024 Prof. Agi Joseph George | AP | ECE | AJCE 90
91. 1 Henry:
• 1 Henry is:
• the inductance the coil has, when the current changing at the rate of 1 A/sec
passes through the coil and sets up the emf of 1 volt
• Inductive reactance:
• XL=𝟐𝛑 𝐟 𝐋
25-03-2024 Prof. Agi Joseph George | AP | ECE | AJCE 91
94. Fixed inductors:
• Air core Inductor
• Iron core Inductor
• Ferrite core Inductor
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95. Air core inductors:
• Former is made up of insulating material like ceramic and air is inside the
former.
• Plastic or cardboard is used to wind the coil on the ceramic.
• It has got least inductance per number of turns and length.
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96. Iron core inductors:
• The space inside the former of the coil is filled with solid iron or
laminated iron core.
• Iron is a ferromagnetic material which provides the easier path for the
magnetic flux produced.
• Iron is laminated to reduce the eddy current loss.
• Iron core Inductor is also known as choke.
• Useful at low frequencies.
• Used as filter chokes and Audio frequency chokes.
25-03-2024 Prof. Agi Joseph George | AP | ECE | AJCE 96
97. Ferrite core inductors:
• When iron oxide is mixed with other metal irons to control the magnetic
properties, ferrite core is formed.
• Coil is wound to the ferrite core.
• Minimum eddy current loss.
• This core can be used from audio to radio frequencies up to 100MHz.
• Application: The built-in antennas for radios
25-03-2024 Prof. Agi Joseph George | AP | ECE | AJCE 97
98. Variable inductors:
• Give variation in value of inductance.
• They usually use ferrite core.
• They use hollow former with screw threads inside, on which the coil is
wound.
• Due to the change in position of the ferrite core in the former, the value
of the inductance change.
• L is max when the core is fully in.
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99. Q factor:
• Factor expressing the quality of a coil.
• Resistance of the inductor is primarily responsible for the Q of the coil.
• Q goes down when R is added in series with the circuit.
• Increase in frequency increases the Q.
• For an ideal inductor, R=0;
25-03-2024 Prof. Agi Joseph George | AP | ECE | AJCE 99
100. Mutually coupled coils:
• When the magnetic flux produced by an inductor links with another
inductor, these inductors are said to be mutually coupled.
• When inductors are coupled there exists a mutual inductance (working
principle of transformer) that relates the current in the primary inductor
to the flux linkage in the secondary inductor.
25-03-2024 Prof. Agi Joseph George | AP | ECE | AJCE 100
101. Mutually coupled coils:
• Thus there are three inductors are present
• L1 – The self inductance of the coil 1
• L2 – The self inductance of the coil 2
• M – The Mutual inductance associated with the inductors.
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102. Voltage and current relation:
25-03-2024 Prof. Agi Joseph George | AP | ECE | AJCE 102
103. Specifications of an inductor:
• Nominal Inductance:
• the value of inductance that the inductor is supposed to offer at a particular
frequency and voltage.
• expressed in Microhenry, Millihenry, or Henry.
• Tolerance:
• can change with the frequency of the signal, temperature, and current.
• tolerance is the maximum variation in the value of inductance under all possible
test conditions.
• can have +/-1%, +/-2%, +/-3%, +/-5%, +/-10%, +/-15%, or +/-20%
tolerance with alphabets, F, G, H, J, K, L and M, respectively
25-03-2024 Prof. Agi Joseph George | AP | ECE | AJCE 103
104. Specifications of an inductor:
• Maximum DC Current
• maximum level of direct current that can pass through the inductor without any
damage.
• Maximum DC Resistance:
• maximum resistance offered by the coil of the inductor with DC current or the
unwanted resistance of the inductor.
• Quality Factor (Q Factor)
• ratio of inductive reactance to the effective resistance
• higher the quality factor, the more energy-efficient is the inductor.
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105. Specifications of an inductor:
• Self Resonant Frequency (SFR)
• Due to turns of wire in inductor coil, there is always some distributed capacitance
in inductors.
• At a certain frequency, the capacitance and inductance of an inductor become
equal, and they cancel each other.
• At this frequency, the inductor does not show any effect of inductance
• At SFR, the quality factor of the inductor drops to zero
• Frequency range
• Range of frequency over which the inductor can be used
• Loss factor
• Reciprocal of Q factor
25-03-2024 Prof. Agi Joseph George | AP | ECE | AJCE 105
106. Capacitor vs inductor:
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Sl.
No
Capacitor Inductor
1 Blocks Direct current (DC) Blocks Alternating current (AC)
2 Passes Alternating current (AC) Passes Direct current (DC)
3 Voltage in capacitor can’t change
instantly
Current in inductor can’t change
instantly
4 Quick voltage changes produces large
current
Quick current changes produces large
voltage
5 Stores energy in electric field Stores energy in magnetic field
6 Current leads voltage Voltage leads current
7 Energy stored in capacitor is ½ CV2 Energy stored in inductor is ½ LI2
107. Transformer:
• Static electrical machine
• transforms electrical power from one circuit to another circuit
• without changing the frequency
25-03-2024 Prof. Agi Joseph George | AP | ECE | AJCE 107
108. Transformer – working principle:
• Mutual induction
• Consists of two coils that are electrically separated and magnetically
coupled.
• Primary and secondary coils are wound on the magnetic core.
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109. Transformer – working principle:
• An alternating voltage (Vp) applied to the primary creates an alternating
current (Ip) through the primary
• This current produces an alternating magnetic flux in the magnetic core
• This alternating magnetic flux induces a voltage in each turn of the
primary (due to self inductance) and in each turn of the secondary (due
to mutual inductance)
25-03-2024 Prof. Agi Joseph George | AP | ECE | AJCE 109
110. Transformer – working principle:
• 𝑉𝑠/𝑉𝑝 = 𝑁𝑠/𝑁𝑝
• 𝑁𝑠/𝑁𝑝 – turns ratio of the transformer
• If 𝑁𝑠/𝑁𝑝 >1, voltage induced in secondary winding is more than
primary winding – step up transformer
• If 𝑁𝑠/𝑁𝑝 <1, voltage induced in the secondary winding is less than
primary winding – step down transformer.
• I𝑠/I𝑝 = 𝑁p/𝑁s
25-03-2024 Prof. Agi Joseph George | AP | ECE | AJCE 110
111. Transformer – working principle:
• The total voltage induced into the secondary winding of a transformer is
determined mainly by
• the ratio of the number of turns in the primary to the number of turns in the
secondary, and
• by the amount of voltage applied to the primary
• No electrical connection b/w primary and secondary. It provides a
means of isolating one electrical circuit from another
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113. Classification of Materials:
• Based on electrical conductivity:
• Conductors
• Conduction in metals is only due to the electrons
• has overlapping valence and conduction bands.
• valence band is only partially filled and the conduction band partially empty.
• Semiconductors
• has a resistivity value in between that of a conductor and an insulator
• conductivity of a semiconductor material can be varied under an external electric field.
• Band gap is of the order of 1eV.
• Insulators
• having extremely poor electrical conductivity
• forbidden energy gap is large, e.g.: 6eV for diamond.
• The number of free electrons in an insulator is very small, roughly about 107 electrons /m3
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115. Classification of Semiconductors:
• Intrinsic semiconductors:
• semiconductors in their purest form
• An example would be a semiconductor crystal with only silicon atoms.
• even at room temperature, some of the valence electrons may acquire sufficient
energy to enter the conduction band to form free electrons.
• Extrinsic semiconductor:
• semiconductors with other atoms mixed in.
• These other atoms are called impurity atoms.
• The process of adding impurity atoms is called doping.
• Doping alters the characteristics of the semiconductor, mainly its conductivity.
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116. Atomic Structure:
• atomic number of silicon is 14,
• meaning that there are 14 protons in its nucleus, balanced by 14 orbiting
electrons.
• The outermost ring of an atom is called the valence ring,
• the electrons in this ring are called valence electrons.
• All semiconductors have four valence electrons.
• The number of valence electrons possessed by any atom determines its
electrical conductivity.
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117. Forming a Crystal:
• When silicon atoms are grouped together, each silicon atom shares its
four valence electrons with other nearby atoms.
• forming a solid crystalline structure.
• This sharing of valence electrons is called covalent bonding.
• The covalent bonds between each silicon atom produce the solid
crystalline structure.
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120. Electron – hole pair generation:
• All valence electrons of a silicon crystal at absolute zero (-273oC or 0 K)
remain locked in their respective covalent bonds.
• Above absolute zero, however, some valence electrons may gain enough
energy from heat, radiation, or other sources to escape from their parent
atoms.
• When an electron leaves its covalent bond, it becomes a free electron that
can move freely in the material.
• This free electron also produces a vacancy or hole in the covalent bond
structure that it left.
• Hence due to thermal energy, an electron – hole pair is generated.
• Increase in temperature creates more such pairs.
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121. Electron – hole pair generation:
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122. Doping:
• Due to the poor conduction at room temperature the intrinsic
semiconductor as such, is not useful in the electronic devices.
• Doping is a process that involves adding impurity atoms to an intrinsic
semiconductor.
• doped with impurity atoms to increase their conductivity.
• Forms an extrinsic semiconductor.
• Two types:
• N-type
• P-type
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123. N-type semiconductor:
• A pentavalent atom is one that has five valence electrons.
• examples are antimony (Sb), arsenic (As), and phosphorous (P).
• A silicon crystal doped with a large number of pentavalent impurity
atoms results in many free electrons in the material.
• because there is one electron at the location of each pentavalent atom
that is not used in the covalent bond structure.
• Adding of further pentavalent impurities increase the number of free
electrons.
• Since the electron is the basic particle of negative charge, we call this an
n-type semiconductor material.
• But net charge will remain neutral.
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124. N-type semiconductor:
• As there are more free electrons than holes in an n-type semiconductor
material,
• the electrons are called the majority current carriers
• the holes are called the minority current carriers.
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125. P-type semiconductor:
• A trivalent atom is one that has only three valence electrons.
• examples are aluminum (Al), boron (B), and gallium (Ga).
• A silicon crystal doped with a large number of trivalent impurity atoms
results in many holes.
• Adding of further trivalent impurities increase the number of holes.
• Since a hole exhibits a positive charge, we call this a p-type
semiconductor material.
• The net charge of the p-type material is still neutral
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126. P-type semiconductor:
• As there are more free holes than electrons in a p-type semiconductor
material,
• the holes are called the majority current carriers
• the electrons are called the minority current carriers.
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128. Formation of P-N junction:
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129. Formation of P-N junction:
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130. Formation of P-N junction:
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131. Formation of P-N junction :
• free electrons on the n side migrate or diffuse across the junction to the
p side.
• Once on the p side, the free electrons are minority current carriers.
• The lifetime of these free electrons is short, however, because they fall
into holes shortly after crossing over to the p side.
• When a free electron leaves the n side and falls into a hole on the p side,
two ions are created: a positive ion on the n side and a negative ion on
the p side.
• As the process of diffusion continues, a barrier potential, VB, is created
• the diffusion of electrons from the n side to the p side stops
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132. Depletion region:
• Electrons diffusing from the n side sense a large negative potential on the
p side that repels them back to the n side.
• Likewise, holes from the p side are repelled back to the p side by the
positive potential on the n side.
• The area where the positive and negative ions are located is called the
depletion zone.
• names commonly used are depletion region and depletion layer.
• The word depletion is used because the area has been depleted of all
charge carriers.
• The positive and negative ions in the depletion zone are fi xed in the
crystalline structure and are therefore unable to move.
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133. Barrier Potential, VB:
• Ions create a potential difference at the p-n junction.
• This potential difference is called the barrier potential and is usually
designated VB.
• For silicon, the barrier potential at the p-n junction is approximately 0.7
V.
• For germanium, VB is about 0.3 V.
• The barrier potential stops the diffusion of current carriers.
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134. PN junction diode:
• A popular semiconductor device called a diode is made by joining p- and
n-type semiconductor materials
• the doped regions meet to form a p-n junction.
• Diodes are unidirectional devices that allow current to flow through
them in only one direction.
• side of the diode is called the anode (A), whereas the n side of the diode
is called the cathode (K).
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135. Forward biasing:
• bias is defined as a control voltage or current.
• Forward-biasing a diode allows current to flow easily through the diode.
• the n material is connected to the negative terminal of the voltage
source, V
• the p material is connected to the positive terminal of the voltage source,
V.
• The voltage source, V, must be large enough to overcome the internal
barrier potential VB.
• if the p-n junction is made from silicon, the external voltage source must
be 0.7 V or more to neutralize the effect of the internal barrier potential,
VB, and in turn produce current flow.
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136. Forward biasing:
• The arrow on the diode symbol points in the direction of conventional
current flow.
• electrons flow to the n side, against the arrow on the diode symbol.
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137. Reverse biasing:
• the negative terminal of the voltage source, V, is connected to the p-type
semiconductor material.
• that the positive terminal of the voltage source, V, is connected to the n-
type semiconductor material.
• The effect is that charge carriers in both sections are pulled away from
the junction.
• Free electrons on the n side are attracted away from the junction because
of the attraction of the positive terminal of the voltage source, V.
• Even a reverse-biased diode conducts a small amount of current, called
leakage current.
• The leakage current is mainly due to the minority current carriers in both
sections of the diode.
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138. Reverse biasing:
• Barrier width further increases.
• Any increase in the temperature of the diode increases the leakage
current in the diode.
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139. V–I characteristics of Si and Ge diode:
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140. Reverse breakdown:
• When the reverse voltage reaches breakdown voltage in a normal PN
junction diode,
• the current through the junction will be high and
• the power dissipated at the junction will be high.
• Such an operation is destructive, and the diode gets damaged.
• Whereas diodes can be designed with adequate power dissipation
capabilities to operate in the breakdown region.
• One such diode is known as the Zener diode.
• The Zener diode is heavily doped than the ordinary diode.
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141. Reverse breakdown:
• operation of the Zener diode is same as that of an ordinary PN diode
under forward-biased condition.
• under reverse-biased condition, breakdown of the junction occurs.
• The breakdown voltage depends upon the amount of doping.
• If the diode is heavily doped,
• the depletion layer will be thin and,
• consequently, breakdown occurs at lower reverse voltage and
• further the breakdown voltage is sharp.
• Whereas a lightly doped diode has a higher breakdown voltage.
• Thus, breakdown voltage can be selected with the amount of doping.
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142. Types of Breakdown:
• Avalanche breakdown
• Zener breakdown
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143. Zener Breakdown:
• When the P- and N-regions are heavily doped,
• direct rupture of covalent bonds takes place
• because of the strong electric fields, at the junction of the PN diode.
• The new electron-hole pairs so created increase the reverse current in a
reverse-biased PN diode.
• The increase in current takes place at a constant value of reverse bias
typically below 6 V for heavily doped diodes.
• As a result of heavy doping of P- and N-regions, the depletion-region
width becomes very small.
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144. Zener Breakdown:
• for an applied voltage of 6 V or less,
• the field across the depletion region becomes very high, of the order of 107
V/m,
• making conditions suitable for Zener breakdown.
• For lightly doped diodes, Zener breakdown voltage becomes high and
breakdown is then predominantly by avalanche multiplication.
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145. Avalanche Breakdown:
• As the applied reverse bias increases, the field across the junction
increases correspondingly.
• Thermally generated carriers, while traversing the junction, acquire a
large amount of kinetic energy from this field.
• As a result, the velocity of these carriers increases.
• These electrons disrupt covalent bond by colliding with immobile ions
and create new electron-hole pairs.
• These new carriers again acquire sufficient energy from the field and
collide with other immobile ions thereby generating further electron-hole
pairs.
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146. Avalanche Breakdown:
• This process is cumulative in nature and results in generation of
avalanche of charge carriers within a short time.
• This mechanism of carrier generation is known as avalanche
multiplication.
• This process results in flow of large amount of current at the same value
of reverse bias.
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147. Zener vs Avalanche Breakdown:
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148. Zener vs Avalanche Breakdown:
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149. Zener Diode:
• Though zener breakdown occurs for lower breakdown voltage and
avalanche breakdown occurs for higher breakdown voltage, such diodes
are normally called Zener diodes.
• under the reverse-bias condition, the voltage across the diode remains
almost constant although the current through the diode increases
• the voltage across the Zener diode serves as a reference voltage.
• Hence, the diode can be used as a voltage regulator.
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