The electrons generated from different metabolic pathways of the cell are channeled to the electron transport chain by electron acceptors. The electrons then contributes for the synthesis of ATP.
1. The electron transport chain transfers electrons from electron donors like NADH to electron acceptors like oxygen. This process pumps protons across the inner mitochondrial membrane, creating an electrochemical gradient.
2. Oxidative phosphorylation couples the electron transport chain to ATP synthase. As protons diffuse back into the matrix through ATP synthase, this drives the production of ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate.
3. The electron transport chain consists of four protein complexes along the inner mitochondrial membrane and two shuttle systems to transfer electrons from the cytoplasm. As electrons are passed from one complex to another, protons are pumped from the matrix to the intermembrane space.
Electron Transport Chain and oxidative phosphorylation @meetpadhiyarmeetpadhiyar88
A story of electron transport to the ATP synthase complex by 4 complexes and oxidative phosphorylation.
Present at College of basic science and Humanities, Dantiwada.
Biochem Respiratory chain and Oxidative phosphorylationBlazyInhumang
The electron transport chain (ETC) is a series of complexes located in the inner mitochondrial membrane that shuttle electrons from electron carriers to oxygen. As electrons are passed through four protein complexes, protons are pumped from the mitochondrial matrix to the intermembrane space, generating an electrochemical gradient. ATP synthase harnesses this proton gradient to phosphorylate ADP, producing the majority of a cell's ATP through oxidative phosphorylation. The ETC and oxidative phosphorylation are essential metabolic pathways that generate energy to power cellular functions.
The electron transport chain is comprised of a series of enzymatic reactions within the inner membrane of the mitochondria, which are cell organelles that release and store energy for all physiological needs.
As electrons are passed through the chain by a series of oxidation-reduction reactions, energy is released, creating a gradient of hydrogen ions, or protons, across the membrane. The proton gradient provides energy to make ATP, which is used in oxidative phosphorylation.
1) The document is an assignment submission on the electron transport chain from a student at PrimeAsia University.
2) It provides an overview of the electron transport chain as a series of protein complexes in the mitochondrial inner membrane that pass electrons from NADH and FADH2 through redox reactions to generate a proton gradient.
3) This proton gradient is then used by ATP synthase to produce ATP through chemiosmosis, completing oxidative phosphorylation.
Electron transport chain and Oxidative phosphorylationmeghna91
The document summarizes electron transport chain (ETC) and oxidative phosphorylation. It describes that NADH and FADH2 produced during metabolism are oxidized via ETC complexes I-IV to create a proton gradient, then ATP synthase uses this gradient to synthesize ATP. The ETC consists of Complexes I-V located in the inner mitochondrial membrane, with Complexes I, III, and IV pumping protons from the matrix to the intermembrane space during electron transfer, building up proton motive force used by Complex V to drive ATP synthesis from ADP and phosphate.
The document summarizes the electron transport chain (ETC). The ETC is located in the mitochondria and is composed of a series of electron carriers that transfer electrons from donors like NADH and FADH2 to oxygen. As electrons flow from carrier to carrier, their energy is used to pump protons across the inner mitochondrial membrane, creating a proton gradient that drives ATP synthesis. The ETC consists of four complexes that transfer electrons step-wise to oxygen with complexes I, III, and IV pumping protons. The chemiosmotic hypothesis proposes that this proton gradient powers ATP synthase to generate ATP through oxidative phosphorylation.
1. The electron transport chain transfers electrons from electron donors like NADH to electron acceptors like oxygen. This process pumps protons across the inner mitochondrial membrane, creating an electrochemical gradient.
2. Oxidative phosphorylation couples the electron transport chain to ATP synthase. As protons diffuse back into the matrix through ATP synthase, this drives the production of ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate.
3. The electron transport chain consists of four protein complexes along the inner mitochondrial membrane and two shuttle systems to transfer electrons from the cytoplasm. As electrons are passed from one complex to another, protons are pumped from the matrix to the intermembrane space.
Electron Transport Chain and oxidative phosphorylation @meetpadhiyarmeetpadhiyar88
A story of electron transport to the ATP synthase complex by 4 complexes and oxidative phosphorylation.
Present at College of basic science and Humanities, Dantiwada.
Biochem Respiratory chain and Oxidative phosphorylationBlazyInhumang
The electron transport chain (ETC) is a series of complexes located in the inner mitochondrial membrane that shuttle electrons from electron carriers to oxygen. As electrons are passed through four protein complexes, protons are pumped from the mitochondrial matrix to the intermembrane space, generating an electrochemical gradient. ATP synthase harnesses this proton gradient to phosphorylate ADP, producing the majority of a cell's ATP through oxidative phosphorylation. The ETC and oxidative phosphorylation are essential metabolic pathways that generate energy to power cellular functions.
The electron transport chain is comprised of a series of enzymatic reactions within the inner membrane of the mitochondria, which are cell organelles that release and store energy for all physiological needs.
As electrons are passed through the chain by a series of oxidation-reduction reactions, energy is released, creating a gradient of hydrogen ions, or protons, across the membrane. The proton gradient provides energy to make ATP, which is used in oxidative phosphorylation.
1) The document is an assignment submission on the electron transport chain from a student at PrimeAsia University.
2) It provides an overview of the electron transport chain as a series of protein complexes in the mitochondrial inner membrane that pass electrons from NADH and FADH2 through redox reactions to generate a proton gradient.
3) This proton gradient is then used by ATP synthase to produce ATP through chemiosmosis, completing oxidative phosphorylation.
Electron transport chain and Oxidative phosphorylationmeghna91
The document summarizes electron transport chain (ETC) and oxidative phosphorylation. It describes that NADH and FADH2 produced during metabolism are oxidized via ETC complexes I-IV to create a proton gradient, then ATP synthase uses this gradient to synthesize ATP. The ETC consists of Complexes I-V located in the inner mitochondrial membrane, with Complexes I, III, and IV pumping protons from the matrix to the intermembrane space during electron transfer, building up proton motive force used by Complex V to drive ATP synthesis from ADP and phosphate.
The document summarizes the electron transport chain (ETC). The ETC is located in the mitochondria and is composed of a series of electron carriers that transfer electrons from donors like NADH and FADH2 to oxygen. As electrons flow from carrier to carrier, their energy is used to pump protons across the inner mitochondrial membrane, creating a proton gradient that drives ATP synthesis. The ETC consists of four complexes that transfer electrons step-wise to oxygen with complexes I, III, and IV pumping protons. The chemiosmotic hypothesis proposes that this proton gradient powers ATP synthase to generate ATP through oxidative phosphorylation.
The document summarizes electron transport chain (ETC) and ATP synthase. It describes:
1) ETC consists of 5 complexes (I-IV and V) in the mitochondria that transport electrons from nutrients to oxygen, pumping protons out and building up a proton gradient.
2) Complexes I, III, and IV pump protons out while Complex V (ATP synthase) uses the proton gradient to phosphorylate ADP, producing ATP.
3) Electrons are passed through complexes via electron carriers like NADH, FADH2, and cytochromes while protons are pumped from the matrix to the intermembrane space.
ETS.pptx Govt Nehru PG collage by SOMESH KUMARSOMESH Kumar
The document provides an overview of electron transport chain. It discusses the history, location, components and complexes of ETC. The key components include NADH, FADH2, ubiquinone, cytochromes and ATP synthase. Electrons from NADH and FADH2 are passed through these components via redox reactions to ultimately synthesize ATP. As electrons are passed through complexes I-IV, protons are pumped from the matrix into the intermembrane space, creating an electrochemical gradient used by ATP synthase to phosphorylate ADP.
Respiration is the process by which organisms break down glucose and other organic molecules to release energy. It occurs via aerobic respiration, which uses oxygen, or anaerobic respiration, which does not. The electron transport system transports electrons and protons across the inner mitochondrial membrane, establishing a proton gradient used by ATP synthase to synthesize ATP via oxidative phosphorylation. ATP synthase consists of F0, which forms a channel for proton flow, and F1, where ATP is synthesized from ADP and inorganic phosphate using the energy from proton flow down their gradient.
The document discusses the electron transport chain (ETC) in mitochondria. It describes the components and organization of the ETC, including the five protein complexes and electron carriers like NADH, FADH2, coenzyme Q, and cytochromes. The ETC transports electrons from donors like NADH to final acceptors like oxygen, pumping protons across the inner mitochondrial membrane. This generates a proton gradient used by ATP synthase to produce ATP through oxidative phosphorylation, with typically 3 ATP produced per NADH oxidized.
Bioenergetics and electron transport chain 24mariagul6
1. The electron transport chain uses energy released from electron transfers to pump protons across the inner mitochondrial membrane, creating a proton gradient.
2. ATP synthase uses the potential energy in this proton gradient to drive the phosphorylation of ADP to ATP.
3. In this way, the chemiosmotic hypothesis explains how the flow of electrons along the electron transport chain is coupled to ATP production, even though the two processes are physically separate.
The document is an assignment submission on the electron transport chain. It provides details on the electron transport chain, including that it is a series of protein complexes in the mitochondrial inner membrane that sequentially transfers electrons, pumping protons out in the process. This generates a proton gradient that is then used by ATP synthase to produce ATP via chemiosmosis, making oxidative phosphorylation the most efficient ATP producer in aerobic respiration. The assignment covers the components, steps, and purpose of the electron transport chain in detail over multiple pages.
The document provides information on cellular respiration and how it generates ATP through oxidative phosphorylation in the mitochondria. It discusses the electron transport chain, made up of protein complexes I-IV in the inner mitochondrial membrane, which establishes a proton gradient by pumping protons from the matrix to the intermembrane space. This proton gradient drives ATP synthase to catalyze the phosphorylation of ADP to ATP. The chemiosmotic theory explains how the potential energy in the proton gradient is used to produce ATP through rotation of the ATP synthase complex.
Describe the major components of the electron transport chain. How w.pdfduttakajal70
Describe the major components of the electron transport chain. How would the following
conditions affect ATP production by the electron transport chain? (7 marks)
Abundance of NADH and O2
Cyanide added
Lack of O2
Solution
There are five major components in electron system. They are:
Complex I:
It is a large, multisubunit complex with about 40 polypeptide chains passes electron from NADH
to CoQ. It contains one molecule of FMN and 6-7 Fe-S clusters that participate in electron
transport process. During transport of each pair of electrons from NADH to coenzyme Q,
complex I pumps 4 protons across the inner mitochondrial membrane.
Complex II:
Succinate dehrogenase, an inner mitochondrial membrane bound enzyme is an integral
component of the succinate-CoQ reductase complex. It converts succinate to fumarate during
krebs cycle. The two electrons released in the conversion of succinate to fumarate are transferred
first to FAD, then to an Fe-S centre, and finally to CoQ. Thus, CoQ draws electrons into the
respiratory chain, not only from NADH but also from succinate. No protons are translocated
across the membrane by this complex.
Complex III:
Complex I and complex II donates two electrons to the complex III and regenerates oxidized
CoQ. Concomitantly, it releases two protons picked up on the cytosolic face into the
intermembrane space generating proton gradient. Within complex III, the released electrons are
transferred to an Fe-S centre and then to 2b-type cytochromes or cytochrome c. finally, the two
electrons are transferred to 2 molecules of the oxidized form of cytochrome c. 2 additional
protons are translocated from the mitochondrial matrix across the inner mitochondrial membrane
for each pair of electrons transferred.
Complex IV:
Cytochrome c transports electrons, one at a time, to the complex IV. Within this complex,
electrons are transferred, first to a pair of copper ions, then to cytochrome a, next to a complex of
another copper ion and cyt a3 and finally to O2, the ultimate electron acceptor, yielding H2O.
ATP synthase:
The use of proton motive force for synthesis is catalyzed by ATP synthase. The multi protein
ATP synthase for F0-F1 complex or complex V catalyzes ATP synthesis as protons flow back
through the inner membrane down the electrochemical proton gradient.
2. Abundance of NADH and O2:
ETC occurs more to produce more ATP.
Cyanide added:
Cyanide binds with cytochrome oxidase complex and inhibits the terminal transfer of electrons
to oxygen. Cyanide react with the oxidized form of cytochrome.
Lack of O2:
ETC will not take place in the absence of oxygen..
ETC and Phosphorylation by Salman SaeedSalman Saeed
ETC and Phosphorylation lecture for Biology, Botany, Zoology, and Chemistry Students by Salman Saeed lecturer Botany University College of Management and Sciences Khanewal, Pakistan.
About Author: Salman Saeed
Qualification: M.SC (Botany), M. Phil (Biotechnology) from BZU Multan.
M. Ed & B. Ed from GCU Faisalabad, Pakistan.
3- Electron Transport Chain pdf which is related to biochemistrysrinathbadugu0777
The document discusses electron transport chain (ETC) located in the inner mitochondrial membrane. ETC involves the transfer of electrons from reduced coenzymes like NADH and FADH2 through a series of protein complexes along with the pumping of protons from the matrix to the intermembrane space. This creates an electrochemical gradient that drives the synthesis of ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate by ATP synthase. The five complexes of ETC, mobile electron carriers like coenzyme Q and cytochrome c, mechanisms of oxidative phosphorylation and proton gradient are explained in detail.
Oxidative phosphorylation and photophosphorylation are two pathways that generate ATP through electron transport chains located in mitochondria and chloroplasts respectively. Both pathways use proton gradients generated by electron transport to power ATP synthase and produce ATP. In mitochondria, electrons from NADH and FADH2 enter the electron transport chain at Complex I and II and are passed through a series of carriers including ubiquinone, cytochromes, and Complexes III and IV until they reduce oxygen to water. This electron flow is coupled to the pumping of protons out of the mitochondrial matrix, generating a proton gradient used by ATP synthase to produce ATP.
Inhibitors & uncouplers of oxidative phosphorylation & ETCDipesh Tamrakar
The document provides an overview of oxidative phosphorylation and electron transport chain inhibitors and uncouplers. It discusses key concepts like the Q-cycle, shuttle systems that transport cytosolic NADH into mitochondria, uncoupling proteins, and various inhibitors that target different parts of the electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation. Specific inhibitors and uncouplers mentioned include rotenone, antimycin, oligomycin, 2,4-dinitrophenol, and chloro carbonyl cyanide phenyl hydrazone. Thyroid hormones are also noted to play a role in regulating uncoupling proteins and thermogenesis.
The electron transport chain transfers electrons from electron donors like NADH and FADH2 to oxygen via Complexes I-IV embedded in the inner mitochondrial membrane. This establishes an electrochemical proton gradient as protons are pumped from the matrix to the intermembrane space. ATP synthase harnesses the potential energy of this proton gradient to drive the phosphorylation of ADP to ATP. Specifically, the flow of protons back through ATP synthase causes a rotational motion that facilitates ATP production in its catalytic domain. Overall, aerobic respiration efficiently generates large amounts of ATP through oxidative phosphorylation to meet the energy demands of cells.
Biological oxidation involves the loss of electrons and/or hydrogen atoms from a substrate. This process is carried out by enzymes and can involve the loss of electrons, hydrogen atoms, or addition of oxygen atoms. Energy released from exergonic reactions is transferred through common intermediates to drive endergonic reactions. Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is often used as an energy carrier in coupled reactions, transferring phosphate groups from energy-rich intermediates to adenosine diphosphate (ADP) to form ATP. During metabolism, electrons from metabolic intermediates are transferred to electron carriers like NADH and FADH2 in the electron transport chain located in the inner mitochondrial membrane. As electrons are passed
Biological oxidation involves the loss of electrons and/or hydrogen atoms from a molecule through enzymatic reactions. There are three classes of biological oxidation: loss of electrons, loss of hydrogen atoms, or addition of oxygen atoms. During electron transport chain reactions, electrons from energy-rich molecules are transferred through electron carriers like NADH and FADH2 to oxygen. This releases free energy used to generate a proton gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane and to synthesize ATP through oxidative phosphorylation. ATP acts as an energy currency by transferring phosphate groups from energy-rich intermediates to ADP.
The ETC is a collection of proteins bound to the inner mitochondrial membrane and organic molecules, which electrons pass through in a series of redox reactions, and release energy. The energy released forms a proton gradient, which is used in chemiosmosis to make a large amount of ATP by the protein ATP-synthase.
cell cloning- Therapeutic and reproductive cloningAlisha Shaikh
Cloning is a process where genetically identical types of cells, tissues or organism is being produced. There are two types of cloning- Reproductive and therapeutic cloning.
The document summarizes electron transport chain (ETC) and ATP synthase. It describes:
1) ETC consists of 5 complexes (I-IV and V) in the mitochondria that transport electrons from nutrients to oxygen, pumping protons out and building up a proton gradient.
2) Complexes I, III, and IV pump protons out while Complex V (ATP synthase) uses the proton gradient to phosphorylate ADP, producing ATP.
3) Electrons are passed through complexes via electron carriers like NADH, FADH2, and cytochromes while protons are pumped from the matrix to the intermembrane space.
ETS.pptx Govt Nehru PG collage by SOMESH KUMARSOMESH Kumar
The document provides an overview of electron transport chain. It discusses the history, location, components and complexes of ETC. The key components include NADH, FADH2, ubiquinone, cytochromes and ATP synthase. Electrons from NADH and FADH2 are passed through these components via redox reactions to ultimately synthesize ATP. As electrons are passed through complexes I-IV, protons are pumped from the matrix into the intermembrane space, creating an electrochemical gradient used by ATP synthase to phosphorylate ADP.
Respiration is the process by which organisms break down glucose and other organic molecules to release energy. It occurs via aerobic respiration, which uses oxygen, or anaerobic respiration, which does not. The electron transport system transports electrons and protons across the inner mitochondrial membrane, establishing a proton gradient used by ATP synthase to synthesize ATP via oxidative phosphorylation. ATP synthase consists of F0, which forms a channel for proton flow, and F1, where ATP is synthesized from ADP and inorganic phosphate using the energy from proton flow down their gradient.
The document discusses the electron transport chain (ETC) in mitochondria. It describes the components and organization of the ETC, including the five protein complexes and electron carriers like NADH, FADH2, coenzyme Q, and cytochromes. The ETC transports electrons from donors like NADH to final acceptors like oxygen, pumping protons across the inner mitochondrial membrane. This generates a proton gradient used by ATP synthase to produce ATP through oxidative phosphorylation, with typically 3 ATP produced per NADH oxidized.
Bioenergetics and electron transport chain 24mariagul6
1. The electron transport chain uses energy released from electron transfers to pump protons across the inner mitochondrial membrane, creating a proton gradient.
2. ATP synthase uses the potential energy in this proton gradient to drive the phosphorylation of ADP to ATP.
3. In this way, the chemiosmotic hypothesis explains how the flow of electrons along the electron transport chain is coupled to ATP production, even though the two processes are physically separate.
The document is an assignment submission on the electron transport chain. It provides details on the electron transport chain, including that it is a series of protein complexes in the mitochondrial inner membrane that sequentially transfers electrons, pumping protons out in the process. This generates a proton gradient that is then used by ATP synthase to produce ATP via chemiosmosis, making oxidative phosphorylation the most efficient ATP producer in aerobic respiration. The assignment covers the components, steps, and purpose of the electron transport chain in detail over multiple pages.
The document provides information on cellular respiration and how it generates ATP through oxidative phosphorylation in the mitochondria. It discusses the electron transport chain, made up of protein complexes I-IV in the inner mitochondrial membrane, which establishes a proton gradient by pumping protons from the matrix to the intermembrane space. This proton gradient drives ATP synthase to catalyze the phosphorylation of ADP to ATP. The chemiosmotic theory explains how the potential energy in the proton gradient is used to produce ATP through rotation of the ATP synthase complex.
Describe the major components of the electron transport chain. How w.pdfduttakajal70
Describe the major components of the electron transport chain. How would the following
conditions affect ATP production by the electron transport chain? (7 marks)
Abundance of NADH and O2
Cyanide added
Lack of O2
Solution
There are five major components in electron system. They are:
Complex I:
It is a large, multisubunit complex with about 40 polypeptide chains passes electron from NADH
to CoQ. It contains one molecule of FMN and 6-7 Fe-S clusters that participate in electron
transport process. During transport of each pair of electrons from NADH to coenzyme Q,
complex I pumps 4 protons across the inner mitochondrial membrane.
Complex II:
Succinate dehrogenase, an inner mitochondrial membrane bound enzyme is an integral
component of the succinate-CoQ reductase complex. It converts succinate to fumarate during
krebs cycle. The two electrons released in the conversion of succinate to fumarate are transferred
first to FAD, then to an Fe-S centre, and finally to CoQ. Thus, CoQ draws electrons into the
respiratory chain, not only from NADH but also from succinate. No protons are translocated
across the membrane by this complex.
Complex III:
Complex I and complex II donates two electrons to the complex III and regenerates oxidized
CoQ. Concomitantly, it releases two protons picked up on the cytosolic face into the
intermembrane space generating proton gradient. Within complex III, the released electrons are
transferred to an Fe-S centre and then to 2b-type cytochromes or cytochrome c. finally, the two
electrons are transferred to 2 molecules of the oxidized form of cytochrome c. 2 additional
protons are translocated from the mitochondrial matrix across the inner mitochondrial membrane
for each pair of electrons transferred.
Complex IV:
Cytochrome c transports electrons, one at a time, to the complex IV. Within this complex,
electrons are transferred, first to a pair of copper ions, then to cytochrome a, next to a complex of
another copper ion and cyt a3 and finally to O2, the ultimate electron acceptor, yielding H2O.
ATP synthase:
The use of proton motive force for synthesis is catalyzed by ATP synthase. The multi protein
ATP synthase for F0-F1 complex or complex V catalyzes ATP synthesis as protons flow back
through the inner membrane down the electrochemical proton gradient.
2. Abundance of NADH and O2:
ETC occurs more to produce more ATP.
Cyanide added:
Cyanide binds with cytochrome oxidase complex and inhibits the terminal transfer of electrons
to oxygen. Cyanide react with the oxidized form of cytochrome.
Lack of O2:
ETC will not take place in the absence of oxygen..
ETC and Phosphorylation by Salman SaeedSalman Saeed
ETC and Phosphorylation lecture for Biology, Botany, Zoology, and Chemistry Students by Salman Saeed lecturer Botany University College of Management and Sciences Khanewal, Pakistan.
About Author: Salman Saeed
Qualification: M.SC (Botany), M. Phil (Biotechnology) from BZU Multan.
M. Ed & B. Ed from GCU Faisalabad, Pakistan.
3- Electron Transport Chain pdf which is related to biochemistrysrinathbadugu0777
The document discusses electron transport chain (ETC) located in the inner mitochondrial membrane. ETC involves the transfer of electrons from reduced coenzymes like NADH and FADH2 through a series of protein complexes along with the pumping of protons from the matrix to the intermembrane space. This creates an electrochemical gradient that drives the synthesis of ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate by ATP synthase. The five complexes of ETC, mobile electron carriers like coenzyme Q and cytochrome c, mechanisms of oxidative phosphorylation and proton gradient are explained in detail.
Oxidative phosphorylation and photophosphorylation are two pathways that generate ATP through electron transport chains located in mitochondria and chloroplasts respectively. Both pathways use proton gradients generated by electron transport to power ATP synthase and produce ATP. In mitochondria, electrons from NADH and FADH2 enter the electron transport chain at Complex I and II and are passed through a series of carriers including ubiquinone, cytochromes, and Complexes III and IV until they reduce oxygen to water. This electron flow is coupled to the pumping of protons out of the mitochondrial matrix, generating a proton gradient used by ATP synthase to produce ATP.
Inhibitors & uncouplers of oxidative phosphorylation & ETCDipesh Tamrakar
The document provides an overview of oxidative phosphorylation and electron transport chain inhibitors and uncouplers. It discusses key concepts like the Q-cycle, shuttle systems that transport cytosolic NADH into mitochondria, uncoupling proteins, and various inhibitors that target different parts of the electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation. Specific inhibitors and uncouplers mentioned include rotenone, antimycin, oligomycin, 2,4-dinitrophenol, and chloro carbonyl cyanide phenyl hydrazone. Thyroid hormones are also noted to play a role in regulating uncoupling proteins and thermogenesis.
The electron transport chain transfers electrons from electron donors like NADH and FADH2 to oxygen via Complexes I-IV embedded in the inner mitochondrial membrane. This establishes an electrochemical proton gradient as protons are pumped from the matrix to the intermembrane space. ATP synthase harnesses the potential energy of this proton gradient to drive the phosphorylation of ADP to ATP. Specifically, the flow of protons back through ATP synthase causes a rotational motion that facilitates ATP production in its catalytic domain. Overall, aerobic respiration efficiently generates large amounts of ATP through oxidative phosphorylation to meet the energy demands of cells.
Biological oxidation involves the loss of electrons and/or hydrogen atoms from a substrate. This process is carried out by enzymes and can involve the loss of electrons, hydrogen atoms, or addition of oxygen atoms. Energy released from exergonic reactions is transferred through common intermediates to drive endergonic reactions. Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is often used as an energy carrier in coupled reactions, transferring phosphate groups from energy-rich intermediates to adenosine diphosphate (ADP) to form ATP. During metabolism, electrons from metabolic intermediates are transferred to electron carriers like NADH and FADH2 in the electron transport chain located in the inner mitochondrial membrane. As electrons are passed
Biological oxidation involves the loss of electrons and/or hydrogen atoms from a molecule through enzymatic reactions. There are three classes of biological oxidation: loss of electrons, loss of hydrogen atoms, or addition of oxygen atoms. During electron transport chain reactions, electrons from energy-rich molecules are transferred through electron carriers like NADH and FADH2 to oxygen. This releases free energy used to generate a proton gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane and to synthesize ATP through oxidative phosphorylation. ATP acts as an energy currency by transferring phosphate groups from energy-rich intermediates to ADP.
The ETC is a collection of proteins bound to the inner mitochondrial membrane and organic molecules, which electrons pass through in a series of redox reactions, and release energy. The energy released forms a proton gradient, which is used in chemiosmosis to make a large amount of ATP by the protein ATP-synthase.
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Cloning is a process where genetically identical types of cells, tissues or organism is being produced. There are two types of cloning- Reproductive and therapeutic cloning.
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The binding of cosmological structures by massless topological defectsSérgio Sacani
Assuming spherical symmetry and weak field, it is shown that if one solves the Poisson equation or the Einstein field
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Travis Hills of MN is Making Clean Water Accessible to All Through High Flux ...Travis Hills MN
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Authoring a personal GPT for your research and practice: How we created the Q...Leonel Morgado
Thematic analysis in qualitative research is a time-consuming and systematic task, typically done using teams. Team members must ground their activities on common understandings of the major concepts underlying the thematic analysis, and define criteria for its development. However, conceptual misunderstandings, equivocations, and lack of adherence to criteria are challenges to the quality and speed of this process. Given the distributed and uncertain nature of this process, we wondered if the tasks in thematic analysis could be supported by readily available artificial intelligence chatbots. Our early efforts point to potential benefits: not just saving time in the coding process but better adherence to criteria and grounding, by increasing triangulation between humans and artificial intelligence. This tutorial will provide a description and demonstration of the process we followed, as two academic researchers, to develop a custom ChatGPT to assist with qualitative coding in the thematic data analysis process of immersive learning accounts in a survey of the academic literature: QUAL-E Immersive Learning Thematic Analysis Helper. In the hands-on time, participants will try out QUAL-E and develop their ideas for their own qualitative coding ChatGPT. Participants that have the paid ChatGPT Plus subscription can create a draft of their assistants. The organizers will provide course materials and slide deck that participants will be able to utilize to continue development of their custom GPT. The paid subscription to ChatGPT Plus is not required to participate in this workshop, just for trying out personal GPTs during it.
The cost of acquiring information by natural selectionCarl Bergstrom
This is a short talk that I gave at the Banff International Research Station workshop on Modeling and Theory in Population Biology. The idea is to try to understand how the burden of natural selection relates to the amount of information that selection puts into the genome.
It's based on the first part of this research paper:
The cost of information acquisition by natural selection
Ryan Seamus McGee, Olivia Kosterlitz, Artem Kaznatcheev, Benjamin Kerr, Carl T. Bergstrom
bioRxiv 2022.07.02.498577; doi: https://doi.org/10.1101/2022.07.02.498577
2. Introduction
● Oxidative phosphorylation is the culmination of energy yielding metabolism in
aerobic organisms.
● All oxidative steps in the degradation of carbohydrates, fats, and amino acids
converge at this final stage of cellular respiration, in which the energy of oxidation
drives the synthesis of ATP.
● In eukaryotes, oxidative phosphorylation occurs in mitochondria. Oxidative
phosphorylation involves the reduction of O2 to H2O with electrons donated by
NADH and FADH2.
3. Biochemical anatomy of a mitochondrion.
● The convolutions (cristae) of the inner membrane
provide a very large surface area.
● The inner membrane of a single liver mitochondrion
may have more than 10,000 sets of electron-
transfer systems (respiratory chains) and ATP
synthase molecules, distributed over the membrane
surface. Heart mitochondria, which have more profuse
cristae and thus a much larger area of inner
membrane, contain more than three times as many
sets of electron-transfer systems as liver
mitochondria.
● The mitochondrial pool of coenzymes and
intermediates is functionally separate from the
cytosolic pool.
4. Electron transport chain
● Oxidative phosphorylation begins with the entry of electrons into the respiratory
chain.
● Most of these electrons arise from the action of dehydrogenases that collect
electrons from catabolic pathways and funnel them into universal electron
acceptors—nicotinamide nucleotides (NAD or NADP) or flavin nucleotides (FMN
or FAD).
5. Complex I: NADH Dehydrogenase, NADH:ubiquinone oxidoreductase
Complex II: Succinate dehydrogenase
Complex III:cytochrome bc1 complex or ubiquinone:cytochrome c oxidoreductase
Complex IV: Cytochrome oxidase
Complexes of Electron Transport Chain
6. Complex I: NADH dehydrogenase/NADH:ubiquinone oxidoreductase
● It is a large enzyme composed of
42 different polypeptide chains,
including an FMN-containing
flavoprotein and at least six iron
sulfur centers.
● High-resolution electron
microscopy shows Complex I to
be L-shaped, with one arm of
the L in the membrane and the
other extending into the
matrix.
7. ● Complex I catalyzes the transfer of a hydride ion from NADH to FMN, from which
two electrons pass through a series of Fe-S centers to the iron sulfur protein N-2
in the matrix arm of the complex.
● Electron transfer from N-2 to ubiquinone on the membrane arm forms QH2, which
diffuses into the lipid bilayer.
● This electron transfer also drives the expulsion from the matrix of four protons per
pair of electrons.
● Proton flux produces an electrochemical potential across the inner mitochondrial
membrane (N side negative, P side positive), which conserves some of the energy
released by the electron-transfer reactions. This electrochemical potential drives ATP
synthesis.
8. ● Complex I catalyzes two simultaneous and obligately coupled processes:
(1) the exergonic transfer to ubiquinone of a hydride ion from NADH and a proton from
the matrix, expressed by
Ubiquinol (QH2, the fully reduced form) diffuses in the inner mitochondrial membrane from
Complex I to Complex III, where it is oxidized to Q in a process that also involves the
outward movement of H.
(2) the endergonic transfer of four protons from the matrix to the intermembrane space.
9. ● Succinate dehydrogenase,is the only membrane-bound enzyme in the citric acid
cycle
● It has four different protein subunits (A,B,C,D) and contain a heme group, heme
b,and a binding site for ubiquinone, the final electron acceptor in the reaction
catalyzed by Complex II.
● Electrons move from succinate to FAD, then through the three Fe-S centers to
ubiquinone.The heme b is not on the main path of electron transfer but protects
against the formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) by electrons that go astray.
Complex II: Succinate dehydrogenase
10. Structure of complex II:
● The enzyme has two transmembrane subunits,
C (green) and D (blue); the cytoplasmic
extensions contain subunits B (orange) and A
(purple).
● Just behind the FAD in subunit A (gold) is the
binding site for succinate
● Subunit B has three sets of Fe-S centers
(yellow and red)
● ubiquinone (yellow) is bound to subunit C
● and heme b (purple) is sandwiched between
subunits C and D.
● A cardiolipin molecule is so tightly bound to
subunit C that it shows up in the crystal structure
(gray spacefilling).
11. ● It couples the transfer of electrons
from ubiquinol (QH2) to cytochrome c
with the vectorial transport of protons
from the matrix to the intermembrane
space.
● The complex has two distinct binding
sites for ubiquinone, QN and QP.
Complex III: cytochrome bc1 complex or ubiquinone:cytochrome c oxidoreductase
12.
13. Electron transport by complex III:
The path of electrons through Complex III is shown by blue arrows. On the P side of the
membrane, two molecules of QH2 are oxidized to Q near the P side, releasing two
protons per Q (four protons in all) into the intermembrane space. Each QH2 donates one
electron (via the Rieske Fe-S center) to cytochrome c1, and one electron (via cytochrome
b) to a molecule of Q near the N side, reducing it in two steps to QH2. This reduction also
uses two protons per Q, which are taken up from the matrix.
14. ● In the final step of the respiratory
chain, Complex IV, also called
cytochrome oxidase,carries
electrons from cytochrome c to
molecular oxygen, reducing it to
H2O.
● Complex IV is a large enzyme (13
subunits; Mr204,000) of the inner
mitochondrial membrane.
Complex IV: cytochrome oxidase
15. ● The three proteins critical to electron flow are subunits I, II, and III.
● The larger green structure includes the other ten proteins in the complex.
● Electron transfer through Complex IV begins when two molecules of reduced
cytochrome c (top) each donate an electron to the binuclear center CuA. From here
electrons pass through heme a to the Fe-Cu center (cytochrome a3 and Cu B).
● Oxygen now binds to heme a3 and is reduced to its peroxy derivative (O2 2- ) by
two electrons from the Fe-Cu center. Delivery of two more electrons from
cytochrome c (making four electrons in all) converts the O2 2- to two molecules
of water, with consumption of four “substrate” protons from the matrix. At the same
time, four more protons are pumped from the matrix by an as yet unknown
mechanism.
16. Summary
For each pair of electrons transferred to O2, four protons are pumped out by Complex I,
four by Complex III, and two by Complex IV. The vectorial equation for the process is
therefore
● The electrochemical energy inherent in this difference in proton concentration and
separation of charge represents a temporary conservation of much of the energy of electron
transfer.
● The energy stored in such a gradient, termed the proton-motive force, has two components:
1. The chemical potential energy due to the difference in concentration of a chemical species
(H) in the two regions separated by the membrane
2. The electrical potential energy that results from the separation of charge when a proton
moves across the membrane without a counterion
17. ATP Synthesis
● How is a concentration gradient of protons transformed into ATP?
● We have seen that electron transfer releases, and the proton-motive force conserves,
more than enough free energy (about 200 kJ) per “mole” of electron pairs to drive the
formation of a mole of ATP, which requires about 50 kJ.
● But what is the chemical mechanism that couples proton flux with phosphorylation?
18. The chemiosmotic model
● The chemiosmotic model, proposed by Peter Mitchell, gives insights into the
mechanism.
● According to the model, the electrochemical energy inherent in the difference in
proton concentration and separation of charge across the inner mitochondrial
membrane—the proton-motive force—drives the synthesis of ATP as protons
flow passively back into the matrix through a proton pore associated with ATP
synthase.
● To emphasize this crucial role of the proton motive force, the equation for ATP
synthesis is sometimes written
20. ● In this simple representation of the chemiosmotic theory applied to mitochondria,
electrons from NADH and other oxidizable substrates pass through a chain of carriers
arranged asymmetrically in the inner membrane.
● Electron flow is accompanied by proton transfer across the membrane, producing
both a chemical gradient (Δ pH) and an electrical gradient (Δψ ).
● The inner mitochondrial membrane is impermeable to protons; protons can re-enter
the matrix only through proton-specific channels (Fo).
● The proton-motive force that drives protons back into the matrix provides the energy
for ATP synthesis, catalyzed by the F1 complex associated with Fo.
21. Complex V: ATP Synthase
● ATP synthase, also called Complex V, has two
distinct components: F1, a peripheral membrane
protein, and Fo (o denoting oligomycin-sensitive),
which is integral to the membrane.
● Fo has a proton pore through which protons leak as
fast as they are pumped by electron transfer, and
without a proton gradient the F1-depleted vesicles
cannot make ATP.
● Mitochondrial ATP synthase is an F-type ATPase. This large enzyme complex of the
inner mitochondrial membrane catalyzes the formation of ATP from ADP and Pi,
accompanied by the flow of protons from the P to the N side of the membrane.
22. ● Mitochondrial F1 has nine subunits of five different types, with the composition α3
β3γδε. Each of the three subunits has one catalytic site for ATP synthesis. The
corresponding subunit conformations are designated β-ATP, β-ADP, and β-empty.
● The Fo complex making up the proton pore is composed of three subunits, a, b, and
c, in the proportion ab2c10–12. Subunit c is a small (Mr8,000), very hydrophobic
polypeptide, consisting almost entirely of two transmembrane helices, with a small
loop extending from the matrix side of the membrane.