This document summarizes a literature review article that reflects on Herbert Simon's vision of establishing a science of design as outlined in his influential book The Sciences of the Artificial. The review traces the evolution of Simon's views across the three editions of the book, noting that he widened the scope of his discussions of design in later editions. However, these refinements were not fully recognized by design researchers. The review aims to clarify Simon's evolving perspective and identify the value of his later refinements for design research. It provides historical context around the development of design as a field in the mid-20th century and analyzes Simon's original ideas about design theory and problem solving presented in the first edition of his book.
Design research aims to systematically study and investigate human-made artifacts and the design process. It looks at design from the perspectives of the designer, what is achieved through design, and how things ought to be. Key developments in design research include the Bauhaus school in the 1920s, which helped establish design methodology. After World War II, interest grew in applying scientific techniques to design to better meet human needs. This led to the development of systematic design methods and design science as academic fields of study. Design research continues to aim to improve design through rigorous, evidence-based approaches.
A Method or Art Thinking for Adapting to System Engineering of Utilizing Arch...SeijiShima
This document discusses art thinking and its application to systems engineering. It begins by defining art thinking as the expression of creators' ideas, emotions, and philosophy, focusing more on problem exploration than customer needs. The document then contrasts art thinking with design thinking. It provides Mazda's Kodo design process as an example of art thinking, emphasizing craftsmanship and pursuing ideals without compromise. Finally, the document proposes a framework for applying art thinking principles like metacognition to systems engineering challenges like new product development.
"Herbert Alexander Simon was an American economist, political scientist and cognitive psychologist, whose primary research interest was decision-making within organizations and is best known for the theories of "bounded rationality" and "satisficing". He received the Nobel Prize in Economics in 1978 and the Turing Award in 1975. His research was noted for its interdisciplinary nature and spanned across the fields of cognitive science, computer science, public administration, management, and political science. He was at Carnegie Mellon University for most of his career, from 1949 to 2001."
This document discusses teaching anthropology to industrial design students. It describes two case studies:
1) Teaching the classic anthropology introduction course failed to engage design students. Using the "Nacirema" article as an example, students did not appreciate its insights.
2) A redesigned course focused on design ethnography was more successful. It started with qualitative research methods then introduced anthropological theories. Students found this approach more relevant to their work compared to the traditional introduction course structure.
The document argues applied anthropology is well-suited to collaborating with design fields by bringing socio-cultural knowledge and perspectives. However, bridging differences between disciplines can be challenging.
Nash equilibrium and the history of economic theory by roger b ...sugeladi
This document summarizes John Nash's formulation of noncooperative game theory and its impact on economic theory. Nash's 1950 paper on noncooperative equilibrium was a breakthrough that provided a general framework for analyzing incentives in social institutions using rational choice assumptions. While Cournot had earlier used a similar methodology in the context of oligopoly theory, Nash was the first to articulate noncooperative equilibrium as a general solution concept, transforming economics from focusing narrowly on markets to more broadly studying incentives. Von Neumann and Borel had also made contributions, but Nash was the one who achieved the major intellectual breakthrough of applying rational choice tools more generally across social science.
An Examination Of Scholarly Critique In DRS Publications And Its Role As Cata...Gina Rizzo
This document analyzes scholarly critique in publications from the Design Research Society (DRS). It examines citations of Donald Schön's work across four years of DRS conference proceedings to assess the role of critique in the DRS community. The analysis found very few instances of papers critically citing Schön. Critique is important for intellectual growth, yet appears to be notably absent when analyzing citations of a highly influential author in the field. Understanding the nature and complexity of critical citations, including their rhetorical nuances, could provide insights into how knowledge is negotiated and confirmed within the DRS community.
Lugović, S., Čolić, M., & Dunđer, I. (2014, January), Znanstveni pristup dizajnu informacijskih sustava, Design Science and Information Systems, Overview of Design Science models over the years presented @ International Scientific Conference On Printing & Design 2014
An Agent Of Change Sustainability And Social Entrepreneurship In 21St Centur...Pedro Craggett
This chapter discusses the history and key ideas of sustainability and the First Things First manifesto. It outlines that sustainability emerged from environmentalism in the 1960s due to works like Rachel Carson's Silent Spring. The Brundtland Report in 1987 defined sustainable development as "meeting present needs without compromising future generations." This linked environmental, social, and economic concerns under the umbrella of sustainability. The First Things First manifesto from 1964 criticized graphic design becoming too commercial. It advocated designers take on more meaningful, long-lasting work.
Design research aims to systematically study and investigate human-made artifacts and the design process. It looks at design from the perspectives of the designer, what is achieved through design, and how things ought to be. Key developments in design research include the Bauhaus school in the 1920s, which helped establish design methodology. After World War II, interest grew in applying scientific techniques to design to better meet human needs. This led to the development of systematic design methods and design science as academic fields of study. Design research continues to aim to improve design through rigorous, evidence-based approaches.
A Method or Art Thinking for Adapting to System Engineering of Utilizing Arch...SeijiShima
This document discusses art thinking and its application to systems engineering. It begins by defining art thinking as the expression of creators' ideas, emotions, and philosophy, focusing more on problem exploration than customer needs. The document then contrasts art thinking with design thinking. It provides Mazda's Kodo design process as an example of art thinking, emphasizing craftsmanship and pursuing ideals without compromise. Finally, the document proposes a framework for applying art thinking principles like metacognition to systems engineering challenges like new product development.
"Herbert Alexander Simon was an American economist, political scientist and cognitive psychologist, whose primary research interest was decision-making within organizations and is best known for the theories of "bounded rationality" and "satisficing". He received the Nobel Prize in Economics in 1978 and the Turing Award in 1975. His research was noted for its interdisciplinary nature and spanned across the fields of cognitive science, computer science, public administration, management, and political science. He was at Carnegie Mellon University for most of his career, from 1949 to 2001."
This document discusses teaching anthropology to industrial design students. It describes two case studies:
1) Teaching the classic anthropology introduction course failed to engage design students. Using the "Nacirema" article as an example, students did not appreciate its insights.
2) A redesigned course focused on design ethnography was more successful. It started with qualitative research methods then introduced anthropological theories. Students found this approach more relevant to their work compared to the traditional introduction course structure.
The document argues applied anthropology is well-suited to collaborating with design fields by bringing socio-cultural knowledge and perspectives. However, bridging differences between disciplines can be challenging.
Nash equilibrium and the history of economic theory by roger b ...sugeladi
This document summarizes John Nash's formulation of noncooperative game theory and its impact on economic theory. Nash's 1950 paper on noncooperative equilibrium was a breakthrough that provided a general framework for analyzing incentives in social institutions using rational choice assumptions. While Cournot had earlier used a similar methodology in the context of oligopoly theory, Nash was the first to articulate noncooperative equilibrium as a general solution concept, transforming economics from focusing narrowly on markets to more broadly studying incentives. Von Neumann and Borel had also made contributions, but Nash was the one who achieved the major intellectual breakthrough of applying rational choice tools more generally across social science.
An Examination Of Scholarly Critique In DRS Publications And Its Role As Cata...Gina Rizzo
This document analyzes scholarly critique in publications from the Design Research Society (DRS). It examines citations of Donald Schön's work across four years of DRS conference proceedings to assess the role of critique in the DRS community. The analysis found very few instances of papers critically citing Schön. Critique is important for intellectual growth, yet appears to be notably absent when analyzing citations of a highly influential author in the field. Understanding the nature and complexity of critical citations, including their rhetorical nuances, could provide insights into how knowledge is negotiated and confirmed within the DRS community.
Lugović, S., Čolić, M., & Dunđer, I. (2014, January), Znanstveni pristup dizajnu informacijskih sustava, Design Science and Information Systems, Overview of Design Science models over the years presented @ International Scientific Conference On Printing & Design 2014
An Agent Of Change Sustainability And Social Entrepreneurship In 21St Centur...Pedro Craggett
This chapter discusses the history and key ideas of sustainability and the First Things First manifesto. It outlines that sustainability emerged from environmentalism in the 1960s due to works like Rachel Carson's Silent Spring. The Brundtland Report in 1987 defined sustainable development as "meeting present needs without compromising future generations." This linked environmental, social, and economic concerns under the umbrella of sustainability. The First Things First manifesto from 1964 criticized graphic design becoming too commercial. It advocated designers take on more meaningful, long-lasting work.
This document provides an overview of Karen Cham and her work in the field of digital transformation design (DTD). It discusses DTD as a design-led, user-centered method for transforming complex human systems using digital technologies. The document outlines Karen Cham's experience in sectors like technology, media, education and more. It also summarizes some of her academic writings on topics like complexity theory, systems thinking, and designing complex systems.
Case Law Analysis - Intellectual PropertyIn this unit, you will .docxcowinhelen
This document provides guidance for a case law analysis assignment on intellectual property. It outlines the purpose of the assignment, which is to have students read and analyze a real court decision on intellectual property law. Students are instructed to summarize the key details of the case, including the parties involved, background, specific legal disagreement, and the court's ruling. They are also asked to evaluate concepts like dissenting opinions and whether they agree with the decision. The analysis should be no more than two pages and follow APA style guidelines.
This is the Second out of Seven Articles
co -written by
Steinar Valade-Amland and myself
on
Design Thinking, Design Management
and how to coordinate both strategically .
If you miss number 1/7 send me an email bbm@designence.com and I will send it to you .
The document discusses design participation and different modes of participation. It begins by defining design and participation, and describes the 1972 Design Participation conference that first defined the concept. It then introduces Henri Lefebvre's concepts of "concrete space" and "abstract space" as an analytical tool to understand the relationship between design experts and users. Three modes of participation are identified: Design Participation, which involves collaboration across concrete and abstract spaces; Public Participation in abstract space; and Community Participation in concrete space. Design Participation aims to generate user-centered design, while Public Participation informs policy and civic education, and Community Participation focuses on social services.
A Chomskyan Approach To Responsible Critical Management EducationSherri Cost
This document discusses applying Noam Chomsky's ideas to responsible critical management education. It begins by outlining key elements of Chomsky's thinking that relate to management education, critical thinking, and systems theory. It then discusses how post-colonial theory, cultural studies, and non-Western thinkers can support Chomsky's ideas on business and education. Finally, it proposes examining concepts like cross-cultural performance, third culture building, and cross-cultural adaptation theory in relation to Chomsky's view of global environments and education. The goal is to develop a framework for responsible critical thinking in management education based on Chomsky's political vision and views on university education.
Fundamental Questions - The Second Decade of AI: Towards Architectures for Hu...Aaron Sloman
The document summarizes a presentation given at the KI2006 Symposium on the history of artificial intelligence. It discusses:
1) The presenter's early education in AI in the late 1960s and 1970s, being impressed by works by Marvin Minsky and attending lectures by Max Clowes.
2) Interesting early AI work in the 1970s by researchers like Patrick Winston, Terry Winograd, and Gerald Sussman.
3) The presenter's realization in the early 1970s that the best way to do philosophy was through designing and implementing fragments of working minds in AI to test philosophical theories.
4) Some of the major AI centers that existed in the early
This workshop asks how we can use methods drawn from design, art, and craft, informed by
interdisciplinary and systems thinking, to materialize not just envisioned ‘things’, but abstract or
invisible ideas and relationships. There is an emerging set of research practices using tangible or
material models, or constructive making and embodying to visualize how people think about concepts
ranging from invisible systems and infrastructures to mental models, personal data which would
otherwise be invisible, or even the phenomenological dimensions of experiences themselves. Examples
include explorations of the design of public services, healthcare processes, mental health experiences,
career paths, crafters’ movements, and experiences of social networks (Aguirre Ulloa and Paulsen,
2017; Rygh and Clatworthy, 2019; Luria et al, 2019; Ricketts and Lockton, 2019; Nissen and Bowers,
2015; Fass, 2016).
APPLICATIONS OF HUMAN-COMPUTER INTERACTION IN MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEMSSteven Wallach
This document introduces two volumes on applications of human-computer interaction (HCI) research in management information systems (MIS). The first volume covers HCI concepts and theories, while this second volume focuses on applications, case studies, and specific contexts. Some areas covered include electronic commerce, collaboration, culture/globalization, training/learning, system development processes, healthcare, and research methodology. The introduction provides context on the interdisciplinary nature of HCI research and its practical applications across many fields.
American diversity and design yunke chenYunke Chen
The document discusses an online discussion for an American Diversity and Design course. It includes responses from the student to various discussion questions over the course of the semester. The student discusses how the course changed their perspective to see how designs are closely related to life and society. They also discuss innovations like the telephone that improved communication and discuss how media like photographs have taken on new meanings as icons.
Learning Activity #1Using the company you selected for the.docxsmile790243
This discussion prompt asks students to identify, define, and describe a situation applying the three dominant ethical theories in Western philosophy: utilitarianism, deontology, and virtue ethics. Students are expected to post their initial response by Thursday and respond to classmates' posts by Monday to demonstrate their understanding of these theories.
3 Simple Ways to Write Book Titles in MLA - wikiHow. How To Write A Book Title In An Essay | Steps, Types and Format of a .... Sample Pages In Mla Format. How To Write A Book Title In An Essay Mla Format : How to write a book .... Ultimate Guide | How to Write A Book Title In An Essay.
This document summarizes Glenn Ellison's paper on bounded rationality in industrial organization. It discusses three main approaches to incorporating bounded rationality: rule-of-thumb models that specify simple decision-making rules, explicit bounded rationality models that consider cognition costs, and models drawing on evidence from psychology and economics. The summary discusses the history of bounded rationality in industrial organization literature dating back to the 1930s-1950s, and how interest increased again in the late 1970s-1980s alongside the rise of game theory. It provides an overview of recent bounded rationality literature in industrial organization.
Walls enclaves and the counter politics of designJonathan Ventura
This document discusses a journal article titled "Walls, enclaves and the (counter) politics of design". The article focuses on how urban design is used politically to transform landscapes and produce spaces that signify control over individuals and communities. It analyzes two case studies - gated luxury communities in Tel Aviv that privatize public space, and unrecognized Bedouin villages in Israel's Negev region. Through design anthropology methodology involving fieldwork, the article argues that urban design is a political tool used both formally by the state and informally by marginalized communities to assert or resist control over spaces.
Trendspotting – Models of Man (In Design Thinking)Tan Ti
The document discusses trends in models of human behavior used in design thinking methods over time. It argues that design thinking methods have evolved in parallel with philosophical assumptions about human rationality, moving from intuitive designer to bounded rationality to reflective practitioner. However, it critiques this view for lacking consideration of opposing perspectives and proposes three reasons why the current reflective practice paradigm may be outdated: 1) the evidence linking models of man to method evolution has flaws, 2) current research suggests humans are more irrational than bounded rationality assumes, and 3) the underlying problem-solution method is falling out of favor despite its reflective aspects. It hypothesizes that understanding the drivers of method evolution could help predict and influence future trends.
Systemic Design Principles & Methods (Royal College of Art)Peter Jones
For a guest lecture for Qian Sun and the RCA Service Design program, April 29, 2015, Talk based on the 10 shared design principles for complex social systems, related to the 2014 paper: https://ocad.academia.edu/PeterJones and http://designdialogues.com/publications/
Behind the courtain of a paper: Interdisciplinary research from the idea to d...Federico Gobbo
Federico Gobbo presents an interdisciplinary research paper on the levels of abstraction in computing history. He discusses his academic background spanning multiple fields and universities. The paper was a collaboration between Gobbo and a computer scientist who observed levels of abstraction in virtualization and wanted to define a computer's minimal levels. They found no prior work analyzing this, so they proceeded to write a paper linking their analysis to the philosophy of information. Gobbo outlines lessons learned about choosing ideas, collaborating effectively, and disseminating results while managing copyright.
Essay writing, research, & referencing workshop for students. Mainly focused on the use of theory and evidence.
Cf. Maton, K., 2013. Making semantic waves: A key to cumulative knowledge-building. Linguistics and Education, 24(1), pp.8-22.
The document discusses sustainability and engineering practice for the 21st century. It argues that engineering needs to shift from reactive approaches to active adaptive planning to address complex problems. It proposes that engineering practice needs to become more transdisciplinary, dissolve boundaries, and focus on creating desirable futures that are consistent with collective goals of sustainability. Key ideas are addressing "wicked problems" systemically and using foresight to create sustainable outcomes.
ABSTRACT
Design has evolved from a craft into an academic discipline, but it
still falls short on defining its own science. I review previous
approaches to Design Science and conclude that the subject–
object dualism is the one of the main obstacles. I then apply the
Metaphysics of Quality to overcome the dualism and propose
Quality as the phenomenon of Design Science. Next, I propose to
utilize the analysis of interaction effects as a mean to investigate
Quality. Last, I recommend steps we can take to mature this new
Design Science and strategies how we can gain the
acknowledgement of the other sciences.
The document discusses engineering realism from a micro-meso-macro perspective. It argues that engineering reality consists of both material and social realities, and that engineering projects are carried out by engineering communities rather than individuals. It proposes analyzing engineering using a micro-meso-macro framework, where the micro level refers to individuals, the meso level refers to engineering communities, and the macro level refers to societies and humanity. Adopting this framework would provide a new way to study philosophical issues in engineering.
Short Stories To Write Ideas - Pagspeed. Online assignment writing service.Andrew Parish
This document provides instructions for requesting writing assistance from HelpWriting.net. It outlines a 5-step process: 1) Create an account with a password and email. 2) Complete a 10-minute order form providing instructions, sources, and deadline. 3) Review bids from writers and choose one based on qualifications. 4) Receive the paper and authorize payment if pleased. 5) Request revisions to ensure satisfaction, with a refund option for plagiarized work. The service aims to provide original, high-quality content through a bidding system and revision process.
Jacksonville- Michele Norris Communications And The Media DietAndrew Parish
The document discusses the benefits of the minimum legal driving age. It begins by stating that the minimum legal driving age should not be increased to 18 because that would not help decrease the rate of teen accidents. While some argue accidents caused by teens justify a higher age, the document counters that maturity levels vary and delaying licensure could reduce overall experience and skills. Restricting mobility may also restrict opportunities for work, education and independence. Raising the age could even have unintended consequences of increased risk-taking.
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This document provides an overview of Karen Cham and her work in the field of digital transformation design (DTD). It discusses DTD as a design-led, user-centered method for transforming complex human systems using digital technologies. The document outlines Karen Cham's experience in sectors like technology, media, education and more. It also summarizes some of her academic writings on topics like complexity theory, systems thinking, and designing complex systems.
Case Law Analysis - Intellectual PropertyIn this unit, you will .docxcowinhelen
This document provides guidance for a case law analysis assignment on intellectual property. It outlines the purpose of the assignment, which is to have students read and analyze a real court decision on intellectual property law. Students are instructed to summarize the key details of the case, including the parties involved, background, specific legal disagreement, and the court's ruling. They are also asked to evaluate concepts like dissenting opinions and whether they agree with the decision. The analysis should be no more than two pages and follow APA style guidelines.
This is the Second out of Seven Articles
co -written by
Steinar Valade-Amland and myself
on
Design Thinking, Design Management
and how to coordinate both strategically .
If you miss number 1/7 send me an email bbm@designence.com and I will send it to you .
The document discusses design participation and different modes of participation. It begins by defining design and participation, and describes the 1972 Design Participation conference that first defined the concept. It then introduces Henri Lefebvre's concepts of "concrete space" and "abstract space" as an analytical tool to understand the relationship between design experts and users. Three modes of participation are identified: Design Participation, which involves collaboration across concrete and abstract spaces; Public Participation in abstract space; and Community Participation in concrete space. Design Participation aims to generate user-centered design, while Public Participation informs policy and civic education, and Community Participation focuses on social services.
A Chomskyan Approach To Responsible Critical Management EducationSherri Cost
This document discusses applying Noam Chomsky's ideas to responsible critical management education. It begins by outlining key elements of Chomsky's thinking that relate to management education, critical thinking, and systems theory. It then discusses how post-colonial theory, cultural studies, and non-Western thinkers can support Chomsky's ideas on business and education. Finally, it proposes examining concepts like cross-cultural performance, third culture building, and cross-cultural adaptation theory in relation to Chomsky's view of global environments and education. The goal is to develop a framework for responsible critical thinking in management education based on Chomsky's political vision and views on university education.
Fundamental Questions - The Second Decade of AI: Towards Architectures for Hu...Aaron Sloman
The document summarizes a presentation given at the KI2006 Symposium on the history of artificial intelligence. It discusses:
1) The presenter's early education in AI in the late 1960s and 1970s, being impressed by works by Marvin Minsky and attending lectures by Max Clowes.
2) Interesting early AI work in the 1970s by researchers like Patrick Winston, Terry Winograd, and Gerald Sussman.
3) The presenter's realization in the early 1970s that the best way to do philosophy was through designing and implementing fragments of working minds in AI to test philosophical theories.
4) Some of the major AI centers that existed in the early
This workshop asks how we can use methods drawn from design, art, and craft, informed by
interdisciplinary and systems thinking, to materialize not just envisioned ‘things’, but abstract or
invisible ideas and relationships. There is an emerging set of research practices using tangible or
material models, or constructive making and embodying to visualize how people think about concepts
ranging from invisible systems and infrastructures to mental models, personal data which would
otherwise be invisible, or even the phenomenological dimensions of experiences themselves. Examples
include explorations of the design of public services, healthcare processes, mental health experiences,
career paths, crafters’ movements, and experiences of social networks (Aguirre Ulloa and Paulsen,
2017; Rygh and Clatworthy, 2019; Luria et al, 2019; Ricketts and Lockton, 2019; Nissen and Bowers,
2015; Fass, 2016).
APPLICATIONS OF HUMAN-COMPUTER INTERACTION IN MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEMSSteven Wallach
This document introduces two volumes on applications of human-computer interaction (HCI) research in management information systems (MIS). The first volume covers HCI concepts and theories, while this second volume focuses on applications, case studies, and specific contexts. Some areas covered include electronic commerce, collaboration, culture/globalization, training/learning, system development processes, healthcare, and research methodology. The introduction provides context on the interdisciplinary nature of HCI research and its practical applications across many fields.
American diversity and design yunke chenYunke Chen
The document discusses an online discussion for an American Diversity and Design course. It includes responses from the student to various discussion questions over the course of the semester. The student discusses how the course changed their perspective to see how designs are closely related to life and society. They also discuss innovations like the telephone that improved communication and discuss how media like photographs have taken on new meanings as icons.
Learning Activity #1Using the company you selected for the.docxsmile790243
This discussion prompt asks students to identify, define, and describe a situation applying the three dominant ethical theories in Western philosophy: utilitarianism, deontology, and virtue ethics. Students are expected to post their initial response by Thursday and respond to classmates' posts by Monday to demonstrate their understanding of these theories.
3 Simple Ways to Write Book Titles in MLA - wikiHow. How To Write A Book Title In An Essay | Steps, Types and Format of a .... Sample Pages In Mla Format. How To Write A Book Title In An Essay Mla Format : How to write a book .... Ultimate Guide | How to Write A Book Title In An Essay.
This document summarizes Glenn Ellison's paper on bounded rationality in industrial organization. It discusses three main approaches to incorporating bounded rationality: rule-of-thumb models that specify simple decision-making rules, explicit bounded rationality models that consider cognition costs, and models drawing on evidence from psychology and economics. The summary discusses the history of bounded rationality in industrial organization literature dating back to the 1930s-1950s, and how interest increased again in the late 1970s-1980s alongside the rise of game theory. It provides an overview of recent bounded rationality literature in industrial organization.
Walls enclaves and the counter politics of designJonathan Ventura
This document discusses a journal article titled "Walls, enclaves and the (counter) politics of design". The article focuses on how urban design is used politically to transform landscapes and produce spaces that signify control over individuals and communities. It analyzes two case studies - gated luxury communities in Tel Aviv that privatize public space, and unrecognized Bedouin villages in Israel's Negev region. Through design anthropology methodology involving fieldwork, the article argues that urban design is a political tool used both formally by the state and informally by marginalized communities to assert or resist control over spaces.
Trendspotting – Models of Man (In Design Thinking)Tan Ti
The document discusses trends in models of human behavior used in design thinking methods over time. It argues that design thinking methods have evolved in parallel with philosophical assumptions about human rationality, moving from intuitive designer to bounded rationality to reflective practitioner. However, it critiques this view for lacking consideration of opposing perspectives and proposes three reasons why the current reflective practice paradigm may be outdated: 1) the evidence linking models of man to method evolution has flaws, 2) current research suggests humans are more irrational than bounded rationality assumes, and 3) the underlying problem-solution method is falling out of favor despite its reflective aspects. It hypothesizes that understanding the drivers of method evolution could help predict and influence future trends.
Systemic Design Principles & Methods (Royal College of Art)Peter Jones
For a guest lecture for Qian Sun and the RCA Service Design program, April 29, 2015, Talk based on the 10 shared design principles for complex social systems, related to the 2014 paper: https://ocad.academia.edu/PeterJones and http://designdialogues.com/publications/
Behind the courtain of a paper: Interdisciplinary research from the idea to d...Federico Gobbo
Federico Gobbo presents an interdisciplinary research paper on the levels of abstraction in computing history. He discusses his academic background spanning multiple fields and universities. The paper was a collaboration between Gobbo and a computer scientist who observed levels of abstraction in virtualization and wanted to define a computer's minimal levels. They found no prior work analyzing this, so they proceeded to write a paper linking their analysis to the philosophy of information. Gobbo outlines lessons learned about choosing ideas, collaborating effectively, and disseminating results while managing copyright.
Essay writing, research, & referencing workshop for students. Mainly focused on the use of theory and evidence.
Cf. Maton, K., 2013. Making semantic waves: A key to cumulative knowledge-building. Linguistics and Education, 24(1), pp.8-22.
The document discusses sustainability and engineering practice for the 21st century. It argues that engineering needs to shift from reactive approaches to active adaptive planning to address complex problems. It proposes that engineering practice needs to become more transdisciplinary, dissolve boundaries, and focus on creating desirable futures that are consistent with collective goals of sustainability. Key ideas are addressing "wicked problems" systemically and using foresight to create sustainable outcomes.
ABSTRACT
Design has evolved from a craft into an academic discipline, but it
still falls short on defining its own science. I review previous
approaches to Design Science and conclude that the subject–
object dualism is the one of the main obstacles. I then apply the
Metaphysics of Quality to overcome the dualism and propose
Quality as the phenomenon of Design Science. Next, I propose to
utilize the analysis of interaction effects as a mean to investigate
Quality. Last, I recommend steps we can take to mature this new
Design Science and strategies how we can gain the
acknowledgement of the other sciences.
The document discusses engineering realism from a micro-meso-macro perspective. It argues that engineering reality consists of both material and social realities, and that engineering projects are carried out by engineering communities rather than individuals. It proposes analyzing engineering using a micro-meso-macro framework, where the micro level refers to individuals, the meso level refers to engineering communities, and the macro level refers to societies and humanity. Adopting this framework would provide a new way to study philosophical issues in engineering.
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The document discusses the benefits of the minimum legal driving age. It begins by stating that the minimum legal driving age should not be increased to 18 because that would not help decrease the rate of teen accidents. While some argue accidents caused by teens justify a higher age, the document counters that maturity levels vary and delaying licensure could reduce overall experience and skills. Restricting mobility may also restrict opportunities for work, education and independence. Raising the age could even have unintended consequences of increased risk-taking.
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This document discusses how hip hop has globalized and what is considered "real" hip hop in South Korea. It focuses on four hip hop groups from South Korea: Epik High, Dynamic Duo, Drunken Tiger, and Soul Company. One member of Drunken Tiger, Tiger JK, was raised in Los Angeles and experienced localized hip hop there as well as in South Korea. He began writing lyrics to promote peace and harmony in hip hop rather than promote Korean stereotypes. The study found that South Korean hip hop artists practice a form of "glocalization," incorporating both global hip hop elements and local Korean culture and concepts into their music.
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This document provides instructions for requesting writing assistance from HelpWriting.net in 5 steps:
1. Create an account with a password and email.
2. Complete a 10-minute order form providing instructions, sources, deadline and sample work.
3. Writers will bid on the request and the client can choose a writer based on qualifications.
4. The client will receive a paper and can request revisions if needed at no cost.
5. HelpWriting.net promises original, high-quality content and refunds are offered for plagiarized work.
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A Reflection Upon Herbert Simon S Vision Of Design In The Sciences Of The Artificial
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A Reflection upon Herbert Simon’s Vision of Design
in The Sciences of the Artificial
Xinya You & David Hands
To cite this article: Xinya You & David Hands (2019) A Reflection upon Herbert Simon’s Vision
of Design in The�Sciences�of�the�Artificial, The Design Journal, 22:sup1, 1345-1356, DOI:
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3. XINYA YOU, DAVID HANDS
1346
evolution of Simon’s claims about design over the three editions of this book. Subsequently, it
describes design researchers’ explorations of Simon’s vision of establishing a science of design, as
well as their prominent criticisms of his epistemological views. Next, it shows some convincing
academic voices that oppose these criticisms, and based on them, reassesses the other criticisms
among design researchers about Simon and his book. Finally, an effort is made to identify the value
of Simon’s book in the future development of design theory and design thinking.
2. Simon’s Vision of Establishing a Science of Design in
The Sciences of the Artificial
During the 1950s and ’60s, there was a flourishing of literature that showed a widespread interest in
making design rigorous and systematic (Boulding, 1956) and an ambition to make it a science
(Churchman, 1961). Some of the origins of this trend lay in technical developments such as
computers, systems, and automatic controls that were new at that time (Jones, 1963). Those who
had a strong aspiration to “scientise” design believed that Operational Research (OR) and
Organisation and Methods (O&M) could transform design (Design Research Society, 2016), and
intended to make design compatible with its neighbouring disciplines of management science and
operation (Archer, 1968). This trend led to the “design methods movement” in the 1960s (Design
Research Society, 2016). It was in this context that the first edition (1969) of The Sciences of the
Artificial was published, representing part of Simon’s broader project of unifying the social sciences
with problem-solving (i.e., design) as the glue (Huppatz, 2015). His ultimate aim of writing this book
was to build a science of design that broadened the capabilities of computers to aid design.
2.1 Simon’s Original Ideas about Design in the First Edition of his
Book
The most important view Simon (1969) described in the first edition of The Sciences of the Artificial is
that we live in an artificial world, rather than a natural world. This is the subject of his discussions in
Chapter 1 “Understanding the Natural and Artificial Worlds”. According to his description, natural
science concerns itself solely with how things are, whereas the sciences of the artificial are
concerned with how things ought to be—“ought to be, that is, in order to attain goals, and to
function” (Simon, 1969, p. 5). In light of this view, Simon devoted himself to developing artificial
scientific knowledge about artificial objects and phenomena. According to his explanation, if an
artefact’s inner system is properly designed, it will be adapted to its outer environment, and its
behaviour will be determined in large part by the behaviour of the latter. Moreover, he points out
that people will have to be satisfied if design objectives are met only approximately because of the
limits of the inner system’s adaptation.
Human beings, as adaptive behaviour systems, are the most important subject Simon discusses in
Chapter 2 “The Psychology of Thinking”. According to him, humans’ knowledge of behaviour (i.e.,
their thinking and problem-solving) is artificial because it is learned in a particular social
environment. From a cognitive psychological perspective, his claim is that humans’ problem-solving
capability can be seen as a systematic search through a vast maze of possibilities, a maze that
describes the outer task environment. Also, he points out that human brains’ adjustments to their
outer environment are limited by their adaptive capabilities of information-processing; thus, they
have to rely on a selective search strategy to reduce the search space. Based on these findings,
Simon claims that the theory of design is the general theory of search. Computers, as another kind of
4. A Reflection upon Herbert Simon’s Vision of Design in The Sciences of the Artificial
1347
information-processing systems, as well as an artefact, is considered a useful tool to imitate the
thought processes of human brains in design activities and to enhance the efficiency and
effectiveness of design processes.
Considering design’s central role in creating artefacts, in Chapter 3 “The Science of Design”, Simon
proposes an inclusive definition of a designer: “Everyone designs who devises courses of action
aimed at changing existing situations into preferred ones” (Simon, 1969, p. 55). Further, he
emphasises the crucial role of design as a complement to natural science in all professional training:
“Schools of engineering, as well as schools of architecture, business, education, law, and medicine,
are all centrally concerned with the process of design” (p. 56). Simon further elaborates his vision of
establishing a science of design from the perspective of positivism and technical rationality. That is,
he suggests that professional schools work out and teach a science of design—“a body of
intellectually tough, analytic, partly formalizable, partly empirical, teachable doctrine about the
design process” (p. 58). What makes this vision reasonable is his description of design as a rational
set of procedures that respond to a well-defined problem, which can be solved by decomposing
systems as well as searching for and choosing alternatives.
Simon states that the goal of designers’ problem-solving processes is to find satisfied alternatives in
the face of a real-world complexity where optimisation is impossible. He assumes that it is possible
to determine a desired state of affairs, which enables a designer to solve a problem by continually
translating between the state and process descriptions of the same complex reality. For him, the key
to solving a problem is representing it so as to make the solution transparent. Using the example of
actual design processes run by computer programs, Simon argues that design processes can no
longer make excuses by hiding behind the cloak of “judgement” or “experience” (p. 80), and that the
professional problem solver can simply play the role of a controller or a manipulator. Through these
analyses, he expresses his vision of teaching design as a unifying language that enables
communication across fields. Finally, in Chapter 4 “The Architecture of Complexity”, drawing on all of
the above, Simon discusses the possibility of systematically constructing, designing, or even evolving
an artefact as a complex system with a hierarchical structure.
2.2 The Refinements Simon Made in the Later Two Editions of His
Book
The Sciences of the Artificial was revised by Simon and republished twice, once in 1981 and once in
1996 (Simon, 1981, 1996). In the second edition (1981), Simon developed and enriched his original
thought on design as a problem-solving, process-oriented activity. He expanded his discussion of
computer-aided design by engaging with the tools of heuristic search and operations research (OR)
(pp. 35-36). Classic OR tools provide algorithms for choosing among predefined alternatives, while
heuristic search provide alternative methods for generating alternatives to problems of design (p.
139). Then, he explains “judgement” and “intuition” from a cognitive behavioural perspective, which
strengthens his argument for applying heuristic search in facilitating decision-making. According to
his explanation, “judgment” in decision-making is mainly a non-numerical heuristic search that draws
upon information stored in a large expert memory, and most sudden flashes of “intuition” that
sometimes allow the expert to arrive immediately at the answer are acts of recognition (pp. 104-
105).
Moreover, Simon expands his discussion of problem-solving from puzzle-like tasks, which could be
performed without significant dependence on memory or skills previously learned, to problems in
the semantically rich domain, which require large amounts of specialised knowledge retrieved from
memory (p. 102). He points out that the searching process for solving the latter kind of problems is
5. XINYA YOU, DAVID HANDS
1348
conducted alternately in each of two environments: the problem solver’s long-term memory and the
task environment. Information gained from one environment is used to guide the next step of the
search in the other (p. 105). Thereby, he suggests regarding human memory as an extension of the
environment in which human thought processes take place and indicates that it is composed of both
data and skills, which can both be acquired in dealing with environmental change—that is, “learning”
(pp. 118-119). Further, Simon argues that the objective problem-solving approach of design also
applies to ill-defined problems—that is, the class of ill-structured problem-solving tasks that have
relatively ill-defined goals and to which the process of making discoveries belongs. He provides a new
idea, “Designing Without Final Goals”: “A paradoxical, but perhaps realistic, view of design goals is
that their function is to motivate activity which in turn will generate new goals. ...Each step of
implementation created a new situation; and the new situation provided a starting point for fresh
design activity” (pp. 186-187).
Also broadly discussed is the extended role of design in the social domain, especially in organisations.
Correspondingly, the role of a professional problem solver as a controller or a manipulator is
expanded upon as well. In particular, Simon writes that when conflicts of interest or uncertainties in
professional judgement are present in social design (either in the design of large social systems or in
smaller-scale design tasks), the designing and implementing processes become essentially dynamic
games between the designers and the people they design for. In this situation, the latter are also
designers who are seeking to further their own goals (pp. 177-178). Thus neither the former nor the
latter can act as controller or manipulator. Moreover, Simon also acknowledges the value of
untutored intuitions about self-regulation without central direction in these kind of artificial systems
in human societies. He points out that some complex social systems mostly just “grow” in response
to myriads of individual human decisions, such as markets and medieval cities, which, as he puts it,
are designs without a designer (p. 40).
Fifteen years later, in the third edition (1996), Simon updated some material and added some new
references to support his opinions. He also articulates his vision of establishing a science of design
more confidently: “In substantial part, design theory is aimed at broadening the capabilities of
computers to aid design, drawing upon the tools of artificial intelligence [(i.e. heuristic search)] and
operations research” (p. 114).
3. Design Researchers’ Explorations of Simon’s Vision
of Establishing a Science of Design
3.1 Following Simon’s Vision of Establishing a Science of Design
Over the past half-century, the three editions of The Sciences of the Artificial have encouraged many
scholars to explore the possibility of establishing systematic and formalised design methodologies in
many fields, such as architecture (Schön, 1988), public policy (Jones, 2002), and computer sciences
(Kruchten, 2004). Among design professionals, inspired by Simon’s thinking, many engineering
scholars (e.g., Dym (1994) and Adams, Turns, and Atman (2003)) have contributed to developing a
scientific design methodology in their fields. Their success is not surprising, considering that
engineering, as a discipline, is characterised by a high degree of prescriptive knowledge (Pandza &
Thorpe, 2010), and objectivity is moderately attainable in engineers’ practices (Cross, 2001). These
explorations in engineering have contributed to the development of a research paradigm in which
designing is viewed as a scientific activity (Cross, 2001).
6. A Reflection upon Herbert Simon’s Vision of Design in The Sciences of the Artificial
1349
Furthermore, Simon places an emphasis on engineers’ routine in designing technical artefacts in his
book. This emphasis encouraged some management scholars to explore the concept of a design
science to find an answer for the enduring debate about management studies’ relevance to practice
(Hatchuel, 2001; Pandza & Thorpe, 2010). As Pandza and Thorpe (2010) points out, some
management scholars (e.g., Tsang and Kwan (1999), Romme (2003) and Van Aken (2005)) proposed
ways to link science and design by redefining research hypotheses as design propositions or
technological rules that could be tested in real settings through replication methods, much as
engineers traditionally solve problems. Similar ideas are also popular among some scholars of design
thinking, especially those who have management education backgrounds. For example, Martin
(2009), who introduced a model of the “knowledge funnel” that design thinking is rooted in, claims
that design thinking is an ongoing cycle of generating ideas, predicting consequences, testing, and
generalizing.
3.2 The Prominent Criticisms of Simon’s Epistemological Views of
Establishing a Science of Design
Since the 1970s, however, professional designers in other design-relevant disciplines, such as
architects (e.g., Alexander (1971)), rejected to base design on positivism and technical rationality as
the underlying epistemological notion. There were some engineering designers (e.g., Jones (1977))
also joined their camp. They became pragmatists and borrowed some of John Dewey’s concepts,
such as reflexivity, intentional operations, and the relationship between science, art, and practice.
Their main argument, borrowed from Rittel and Webber (1973), is that scientific design methods that
have been developed to deal with “tame” problems have proved inadequate for real “wicked
problems” in practice, such as problems of social policy. This argument has been enriched by many
design scholars, such as Archer (1979), Cross (1982) and Rowe (1987). Some of them explicitly
criticised Simon’s epistemological view on design in The Sciences of the Artificial.
One of the most distinguished scholars among them is Schön (1983), whose theory of “reflection-in-
practice” is often juxtaposed with Simon’s “rational problem solving” (Dorst & Dijkhuis, 1995).
Schön’s point is that the perspective of technical rationality sees professional practice as a process of
problem-solving but ignores problem-setting, the process by which the designer defines the decision
to be made, the means that may be chosen, and the ends to be achieved. He also points out that, in
real-world practice, problems do not present themselves to the practitioner as given, and must be
constructed from the materials of problem situations, which are puzzling, troubling, and uncertain.
Finally, Schön presents his theory of reflection-in-action, which highlights a designer’s specific
capability for reflection-in-action, featuring a willingness to frame new questions and new ends in
the midst of design. He writes, “Let us search, instead, for an epistemology of practice implicit in the
artistic, intuitive processes which some practitioners do bring to situations of uncertainty, instability,
uniqueness, and value conflict” (Schön, 1983, p. 49).
Another representative scholar is Buchanan (1992), the author of “Wicked Problems in Design
Thinking”. In this paper, he suggests understanding design as a liberal art and an integrative
discipline that contributes to combining theory with practice for new productive purposes. Buchanan
holds that “The significance of seeking a scientific basis for design ...lies in a concern to connect and
integrate useful knowledge from the arts and sciences alike, but in ways that are suited to the
problems and purposes of the present” (Buchanan, 1992, p. 6). As a pragmatist following Dewey’s
thought, he affirms Simon’s contribution to an early understanding of the disciplines of design in the
contemporary world. Meanwhile, Buchanan criticised Simon’s positivist and empiricist views as
making him unable to grasp the radical sense in which designers explore the meaning of the artificial
in human experience. Buchanan (1992, p. 6) suggests, “Designers, are exploring concrete integrations
7. XINYA YOU, DAVID HANDS
1350
of knowledge that will combine theory with practice for new productive purposes, and this is the
reason why we turn to design thinking for insight into the new liberal arts of technological culture”.
Cross (2001) is another influential design scholar who explicitly criticised Simon’s underlying
epistemology of positivism and technical rationality. Much as Buchanan does, he agrees with Simon’s
suggestion for developing a science of design as a fundamental common ground for interdisciplinary
study in creating an artificial world. He also points out that there are forms of knowledge special to
the awareness and ability of a designer (i.e., “designerly ways of knowing”) independent of the
different professional domains of design practice. Then, building on Schön’s theory of reflection-in-
action, he proposes “a science of design based on the reflective practice of design: design as a
discipline, but not design as a science” (Cross, 2001, p. 54), meaning design studied on its own terms
and within its own rigorous culture.
These scholars’ contributions have established a new research paradigm in design studies: design
activities as the subject of scientific investigation (Cross, 2001). This paradigm also dominates
research in design thinking, in which the philosophical position of pragmatism is considered a
conceptual scaffold for design thinking (Dalsgaard, 2014). For this reason, Simon’s book is often
referenced just as one of the starting points of design thinking. The above design scholars’ views are
directed at the first edition (1969) of The Sciences of the Artificial. From this perspective, they are
indeed fair and objective evaluations.
3.3 Some Academic Voices Supporting Simon’s Epistemological
Position
Many design researchers (e.g., Lloyd, Lawson, and Scott (1995) and Kimbell (2011)) have noted that
Simon advanced his account of problem-solving by including ill-defined and ill-structured problems,
which are similar to wicked problems, in his later works, beginning in 1972 (e.g., Human Problem
Solving (Newell & Simon, 1972), “The Structure of Ill Structured Problems” (Simon, 1973) and the
second and the third editions of The Sciences of the Artificial). Some of them (e.g., Coyne (2005),
Dorst (2004), Hatchuel (2001) and Lloyd et al. (1995)) maintained their impression of Simon as a
technocratic designer. Their argument is that Simon (1981) conceives of these problem-solving tasks,
an example of which is the making of discoveries, as composed of the same repertoire of heuristics
that can be found in the usual solving of well-structured problems. But it is noteworthy that, in the
later editions of The Sciences of the Artificial, Simon’s understanding about design is advanced in
many other aspects, which could reverse their impression of him. In fact, based on these changes,
there have already been a few academic voices to emerge against the critiques of Simon’s
epistemological views.
Restrepo and Christiaans (2004), for example, argue that Simon’s problem-structuring for ill-defined
or ill-structured problems is a process of drawing upon knowledge or searching for external
information that may contribute to the construction of the problem space. As they note, it is not
significantly different from what is presented in the paradigm of design as a reflective practice
initiated by Schön. Meng (2009) holds a similar view with Restrepo and Christiaans. Moreover,
having revisited the three editions of Simon’s book, Meng found that Schön overlooked Simon’s
description of the limitation of human rationality, or “bounded rationality”, that challenges people’s
wish to optimise, his suggestion to the designer to “satisfice” as an alternative, and his openness to
the contributions of our intuitive faculties. Another design scholar, Huppatz (2015), has also
recognised that Simon left a small opening in the second edition of his book for social involvement
and creativity in the new chapter “Social Planning: Designing the Evolving Artifact”. Additionally, he
points out that Simon writes that his aim of social planning is “to leave the next generation of
8. A Reflection upon Herbert Simon’s Vision of Design in The Sciences of the Artificial
1351
decision makers with a better body of knowledge and a greater capacity for experience. The aim here
is to enable them not just to evaluate alternatives better but especially to experience the world in
more and richer ways” (Simon, 1996, pp. 163-164). Huppatz claims, “Simon’s [The] Sciences of the
Artificial confirms a shift away from his technocratic designer ideal to an acknowledgement of
design’s ethical foundation” (Huppatz, 2015, p. 40).
These convincing academic voices are insightful because many design scholars (e.g., Harrison, Back,
and Tatar (2006), Hassi and Laakso (2011) and Johansson‐Sköldberg, Woodilla, and Çetinkaya
(2013)), influenced by the mainstream view of Simon as a technocratic designer, have
underestimated the value of The Sciences of the Artificial, especially the revised editions. Moreover,
some of these scholars (e.g., Bayazit (2004), Dorst (2004) and Hatchuel (2001)) cite different editions
of the book in their works. This allows the misleading information concerning Simon and his book to
continue to spread. However, this situation has not been recognised by the majority of design
scholars. Re-evaluating the latest edition of Simon’s book and its value to design research should be
put on the list of research priorities in the future years, especially considering that design theory has
been progressing based on a certain degree of ambiguity about Simon and his book. Specifically, the
changes Simon made in the revised editions of his book are especially valuable for researchers who
intend to establish a “science of design” and reflect on the concept of design thinking, which has
been fiercely criticised in recent years among design scholars (e.g., Norman (2010) and Nussbaum
(2011)).
4. Reassessing Design Researchers’ Criticisms about
Simon’s Descriptions of Design Professionals
When more design researchers shifted their attention to the practices of professional designers,
some of them (e.g., Hatchuel (2001), Kimbell (2009) and Pandza and Thorpe (2010)) criticised
Simon’s descriptions of design professionals in The Sciences of the Artificial. These criticisms point
out Simon’s limited understanding of design practices in the first edition of his book. Considering the
significant changes Simon made in the later two editions, it is necessary to reassess these criticisms
before further discuss the value of the book to the future design research.
The first criticism is that Simon’s emphasis on engineering and architecture is inadequate to serve as
the basis of his vision to develop a science of design (Kimbell, 2009). Based on her research on the
first edition of Simon’s book, Kimbell points out that Simon’s generalised discussion of design not
only tends to blur differences between professional design fields but also fails to clarify to what
extent it describes the design activities in the work of professional designers (p. 3). In general,
Kimbell’s criticism of Simon is partly objective because he did overemphasise engineers’ and
architects’ routinized ways of problem-solving. However, the reason Simon selected these two
design professions was to explain his view of systematically constructing, designing, and even
evolving an artefact as a complex system with a hierarchical structure. In addition, his vagueness in
different fields of professional design can be explained by his view of the theory of design as the
general theory of search and by his vision of teaching design as a unifying language to enable
communications across fields.
The second criticism is that Simon’s one-sided portrayal of engineers’ routinized practices of
designing technical artefacts fails to account for the generation of creativity, invention, and novelty
in design activities (Hatchuel, 2001; Kimbell, 2009; Pandza & Thorpe, 2010). This criticism is directed
9. XINYA YOU, DAVID HANDS
1352
at Simon’s description of prescriptive knowledge in engineering. However, in the second and third
editions of his book, Simon provides an interpretation of “novelty” in his discussion of the searching
process during problem-solving in semantically rich domains: “What constitutes novelty depends on
what knowledge is already in the mind of the problem solver and what help is received from the
environment in adding to this knowledge” (Simon, 1981, p. 123). Additionally, Simon explains that
search guided by the most general heuristics of “interestingness” or novelty is an entirely realisable
activity, using scientific discovery, oil painting, and urban planning as examples (Simon, 1981, pp.
185-187). In these two editions, he also admits the value of intuition several times (section 2.2).
The third criticism is that Simon undervalues the core role of artificial objects in the design process of
professional designers (Kimbell, 2009). It is true that objects do not feature strongly in Simon’s
account of design in the first edition of his book. He only discusses the representation of the
problems related to physical objects by means of floor plans, engineering drawings, renderings, or
three-dimensional models (Simon, 1969, p. 79). However, in the later two editions of his book, Simon
strengthens the role of objects in the process of design when he discusses semantically rich domains.
He points out that, in highly specialised domains, practitioners often have to use external reference
aids in their work to reduce memory burden. His example is architecture, where much of the
information an architect requires is stored in references books and the architect has to incorporate
the emerging partial design in a set of external memory structures (e.g., sketches, floor plans,
drawings of utility systems). Moreover, he points out that, at each stage in the design process, the
partial design stored in these documents serves as a primary stimulus for suggesting to the architect
the direction of new sub-goals (Simon, 1981, p. 109).
The fourth criticism is that Simon overlooked the social contexts in which design activities take place
and the situated and contingent process of most design practices ((Hatchuel, 2001; Kimbell, 2009)).
Hatchuel claims that Simon’s design theory is restricted to problem-solving within a bounded
rationality perspective, which is only a moment in a design process. He suggests that substantial
steps towards a design theory should engage with a concept of “expandable rationality” and a
principle of collective action. Similarly, Kimbell argues that Simon’s accounts of design emphasise
individual, rational action and neglect the social contexts in which design activities take place. Thus,
she suggests rethinking design and design thinking by attending to the situated and embodied
routines carried out by different kinds of design professionals and multiple stakeholders who engage
with designs. The fact is, in the later editions of his book, Simon expands his initial understanding of
professional problem solvers as controllers or manipulators. In this way, he explains the nature of
social design as a distributed social accomplishment (section 2.2).
In general, these four interrelated criticisms indicate the importance of understanding design and
design thinking by analysing different professional designers’ routinized doings and sayings. On the
other hand, if a researcher revisits a later version of Simon’s book, he or she will find these criticisms
are largely untenable. Unquestionably, Simon’s claims about design in the 1981 and 1996 editions of
his book have some intersections with design scholars’ pragmatist views. Here we conclude that
revisiting and reimagining Simon’s vision of design in The Sciences of the Artificial (the third edition)
may constitute a big step towards the further development of design theory and design thinking.
Although most design researchers who have explored the possibility of establishing a science of
design since the 1970s have given up Simon’s vision in The Sciences of the Artificial, their research
findings can still be discussed in the framework of the second and the third edition of Simon’s book.
10. A Reflection upon Herbert Simon’s Vision of Design in The Sciences of the Artificial
1353
5. Future research
This paper reassessed the value of the three editions of Herbert Simon’s The Sciences of the Artificial
indicates. It enables the researchers to map out the connections between the mainstream research
paradigms shaped in the half-century’s design research and Simon’s vision of design (Figure 1).
Figure 1. The connections between mainstream research paradigms and Herbert Simon’s vision of design.
The reassessment of Simon’s book also points towards two potential research directions for design
theory. One is that researchers can use the outcomes of design studies to enrich Simon’s vision of
establishing a science of design. For example, the two prominent research paradigms in design
studies, viewing designing as a scientific activity and viewing design activities as the subject of
scientific investigation, echo Simon (1969) in his call to work out and teach a science of design that is
“partly formalizable” and “partly empirical” (p. 58). Additionally, it is easy to find that the latter
constitutes a larger proportion in design studies than the former, because most problems in practice
are “wicked”. This suggests that the future of design science should be in small part “formalizable”
and in large part “empirical”. The other potential research direction is that design researchers can
apply Simon’s argumentation framework to drive design research in broader directions. For instance,
as Meng (2009) points out, a closer and more appreciative re-appraisal of Simon’s revised design
theory could contribute to the articulation of a distinctive “designerly way of knowing”.
There is also another reason that design scholars should pay more attention to The Sciences of the
Artificial. It is that each section of the book is interrelated and interwoven with each other and,
11. XINYA YOU, DAVID HANDS
1354
together, they constitute Simon’s vision of the sciences of the artificial. More specifically, the book
covers a broad range of scientific domains, including artificial intelligence, decision-making, problem-
solving, information processing, complex systems, and organisation theory, which make it of
profound influence in many fields. However, seldom have design researchers fully exploited the
book, and instead design researchers tend to grab small pieces from it to support their own research
topics with their own interests. It seems that the big picture that Simon depicted has wilfully ignored.
This is probably a consequence of the mainstream opinion among design scholars that Simon is a
technocratic designer. A more careful analysis of the full argument can help design researchers to
connect the fragmented contributions made by researchers from different fields based on Simon’s
intellectual legacy. The significant changes Simon made in the later two editions have also removed
some barriers.
Overall, through this research, we have not only re-evaluated the different views about Simon in the
design community but also established a more objective and comprehensive understanding of
Simon’s vision of design. The major of this study limitation is that the discussion has mainly drawn
upon literature within design and management research and has rarely attended to the relevant
studies in the other fields. While this approach is, we believe, appropriate for discussing Simon’s
vision of establishing a science of design, further work from different perspectives is needed to
generate rich theoretical and empirical accounts of that vision.
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About the Authors:
Xinya You is a PhD student at Lancaster University. Previously, she worked for two years
as an analyst at Siegel + Gale. She obtained her MA in Design & Branding Strategy (Brunel
University) and BA in Industrial Design (Tsinghua University).
Dr David Hands is Course Leader for MA Design Management at Lancaster University. His
research interests are varied and diverse, encompassing design policy development;
design briefing; design leadership; designing against crime; and new product
development.