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I. Noun
- is a word that names a person, thing, place, or idea
Persons: family, Mr. Lee, brother, teacher, friend
Places: cities, country, manila, Aklan, La Paz
Things: baseball, air, sand, flower, ice
Ideas: honor, gratitude, leadership, friendliness, faith
i. Pluralization
Regular Plurals
1. The plural form of most nouns is created simply by adding the letter 's' to
the end of the word .
Example:
bag - bags
dog - dogs
horse – horses
minute - minutes
But there are some exceptions:
*Nouns that end in -ch, -x, -s, -sh add '-es' to the end of the word.
Example:
box - boxes
boss - bosses
bush - bushes
church - churches
gas - gases
2. Most nouns ending in -o preceded by a consonant also form their plurals
by adding '-es'.
Example:
potato - potatoes
tomato - tomatoes
volcano - volcanoes
However many newly created words and words with a Spanish or Italian
origin that end in -o just add an 's'.
Example:
photo – photos
piano – pianos
portico - porticos
3. Nouns that end in a single 'z', add '-zes' to the end of the word.
Example:
quiz - quizzes
4. Nouns ending in a consonant + y, drop the y and add '-ies'.

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Example:
party – parties lady - ladies
5. Most nouns ending in 'is', drop the 'is' and add '-es'.
Example:
crisis – crises
hypothesis – hypotheses
oasis - oases
6. Most nouns ending in -f or -fe, drop the f and add 'ves'.
Example:
calf – calves
half – halves
wolf - wolves
But this isn't a hard and fast rule:
belief - beliefs (believes is a verb
form)
brief - briefs
chef - chefs
proof - proofs
roof - roofs
cafe - cafes
safe - safes (saves is a verb form)
Irregular Plurals
There are also a lot of common nouns that have irregular plurals.
1. Most common nouns connected with human beings seem to be irregular.
Example:
child – children
person – people
man – men
woman - women
Other irregular common nouns are:
foot – feet
goose – geese
mouse – mice
tooth – teeth
2. Some nouns have identical plural and singular forms.
Example:
aircraft – aircraft
fish – fish
headquarters – headquarters
sheep – sheep
species - species
3. In the plural form they still take a plural verb (are / were):

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There is an aircraft in the hangar.
There are some aircraft in the hangar.
There was a fish in the tank.
There were some fish in the tank.
4. Uncountable nouns on the other hand have no plural form and take a
singular verb (is / was ...).
Example:
advice
information
luggage
news
There is a lot of luggage on the plane, but a piece of luggage has gone
missing.
5. Some nouns (especially those associated with two things) exist only in the
plural form and take a plural verb (are / were...).
Example:
cattle
scissors
trousers
tweezers
congratulations
pyjamas
Have you seen my scissors? They were on my desk.
6. Nouns that stem from older forms of English or are of foreign origin often
have odd plurals.
Example:
ox - oxen index - indices or indexes
7. In compound nouns the plural ending is usually added to the main noun.
Example:
son-in-law - sons-in-law passer-by - passers-by
8. Words ending in –us
Linguists can argue for hours about the plural ending of nouns ending in -
us. Many of these words are loanwords from Latin and preserve their
Latin plural form, replacing the -us suffix with -i, but of course not all

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words ending in -us have a Latin origin, and some Latin words ending in -
us were not pluralized with -i. hence the argument.
Example:
The English plural of virus is viruses, not viri.
*Other Latin loanwords that take the regular English plural -es ending
include;
campus – campuses bonus - bonuses
**Latin loanwords that take a -i plural ending include;
radius – radii alumnus - alumni
(If you want to bait a linguist ask them if the plural of crocus is crocuses or croci,
or whether the plural of octopus is octopuses, octopi or octopodes)
Singular
*Uncountable nouns are always singular.
** The pronouns each, either, neither, another, and all compound words
ending in one, body, or thing are always singular.
ii. Ownership
1. The possessive form is used with nouns referring to people, groups of
people, countries, and animals. 'Belonging to' or 'ownership' is one of the
relationships it expresses:
Example:
John owns a car. ('John' is the possessor or owner)
It is John'scar.
America has some gold reserves. ('America' is the owner)
They are America's gold reserves.
*It can also express other relationships, for example:

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*1. where someone works or studies or spends time:
Example:
John goes to this school. This is John'sschool.
John sleeps in this room. This is John's room.
**2. a family relationship:
Example:
John's mother
The Queen's daughter
***3. qualities:
Example:
John'spatience.
The politician's hypocrisy.
2. Form
To form the possessive, add 's('apostrophe -s') to the noun.
If the noun is plural, or already ends in -s, just add:'(an apostrophe).
For names ending in -s:
In speaking we add the sound /z/ to the name, but in writing it is possible to
use either 'sor just '. The‘s’ form is more common. e.g. Thomas's book,
James's shop.
Example:
The car of John = John’s car.
The room of the girls = The girls’ room.
Clothes for men = Men’s clothes.
The sister of Charles = Charles’ sister.
The boat of the sailors = The sailors’ boat.
*There are also some fixed expressions where possessive form is used.
Time Expressions
A day’s work
A fortnight’s holiday
A month’s pay
Today’s newspaper
In a year’s time

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Other Expressions
For God’s sake
A pounds’ worth of apples
The water’s edge
A stone’s throw away (very near)
At death’s door (very ill)
In my mind’s eye (in my
imagination)
** The possessive is also used to refer to shops, restaurants, churches
and colleges using the name or job title of the owner.
Examples:
The grocer’s
The newsagent’s
The dentist’s
Saint Mary’s
The doctor’s
The chemist’s
Tommy Tucker’s
Saint James
The vet’s
Smith’s
Luigi’s
1. Shall we go to Luigi’s for lunch?
2. I’ve got an appointment atthe dentist’s at eleven o’clock.
3. Is Saint Mary’s an all-girls school?
iii. Capitalization
Although capitalization rules can be a bit tricky, rules for capitalizing proper
nouns are pretty straightforward. First, though, it’s important to understand the
difference between common nouns and proper nouns.
 Common nouns are the general names of people, places and things.
These types of nouns are usually not capitalized (unless they begin a
sentence or are part of a title).
 Proper nouns are the names of a specific person, place or thing. The basic
capitalization rule of proper nouns is that the first letters are capitalized.
Common Nouns
man city

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ocean
language
day
Example:
The woman in the restaurant lives in the city.
*The common nouns woman, restaurant, and city in the sentence need to
be written in lowercase.
Proper Nouns
Christopher Roberts
San Francisco
Pacific Ocean
Chinese
Tuesday
Example:
When Michelle Obama came to New York City she went to
Starbucks.
*The proper nouns Michelle Obama, New York City, and Starbucks in the
sentence have to be capitalized.
Capitalization: Types of Proper Nouns
To help you build an understanding of the different types of proper nouns that
need to be capitalized, the following are some overall proper noun categories:
i. Names of People & Pets
Maria Santos
Mr. Micheal Jones
Lassie
ii. Geographical Locations
Chicago
Asia
Ireland
Mount Everest
Mississippi River
iii. Months, Days of the Week, Holidays
Monday January

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Christmas
(Note: We do not capitalize the names of seasons: summer, winter, fall, etc.)
iv. Astronomical Names
Mars
Jupiter
Saturn
(Note:sun and moon are generally not capitalized in sentences unless they
are a part of a list of other astronomical names)
v. Newspaper, Magazines, journals, Books
Chicago-Sun Times
Vogue
Journal of Family Psychology
vi. Organizations, Companies
Microsoft
Oxford University
Amnesty international
vii. Religious Terms
Catholic
Islam
Hindu
God
viii. Buildings, monuments, Place Names
Grand Canyon
Hyatt Hotel
Central Park
ix. People’s Titles
President Obama
King Henry V
Prime Minister Gordon brown
Judge Thomas
(Note: When titles are part of the name they are capitalized; but when titles
are discussed generally, we do not capitalize them. Example: The president of
China will be in Washington D.C. next week to visit with President Obama.)
x. Course Names
Economics 101
Child Psychology in America
Shakespeare’s Comedies
xi. Historical Periods & Events
World War I
The Renaissance
D-Day
xii. Languages, Nationalities
French
English
German
American
xiii. Brand Names
Nike Coca Cola

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II. Pronoun
- is a word that replaces a noun. Pronouns identify persons, places,
things and ideas without restating or renaming them.
Cases of personal Pronouns
Nominative Case Objective Case Possessive Case
First Person
Second Person
Third Person
First Person
Second Person
Third Person
I
you
he, she, it
we
you
they
Singular
me
you
him, her, it
Plural
us
you
them
my, mine
your, yours
his, her, hers, its
our, ours
your, yours
their, theirs
i. The Nominative Case
A. A pronoun is in the nominative case when it acts as the SUBJECT OF THE
VERB.
Examples:
1. They nominated Vincent
2. We finally granted their request.

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3. She and her sister are planning a surprise party.
B. A pronoun is also in the nominative case when it is used as a PREDICATE
NOMINATIVE (also known as subject complement) after any form of the verb be
(am, is, was, were, been) and other linking verbs.
Examples:
1. The architect of that mansion is she.
2. The advocates of this program are they.
It was I. it wasn’t they.
C. A pronoun is in the nominative case when used as the APPOSITIVE of the
subject of the verb or the predicate nominative (also known as subject
complement).
Examples:
1. Two students-he and I-will receive awards for good behavior.
2. We girls must have more drive in life.
3. The class valedictorians are two girls Mary and I.
ii. The Objective Case
A. The objective case is used as Direct Object of a Verb.
Examples:
1. Mother summoned Marc and Me.
2. Mrs. Palacios invited the boys and us.
B. The objective case is used as Indirect Object of a verb.
Examples:
1. The chef served Julie and me a sumptuous dinner.
2. A mailman handed Rachel and him a heavy package.
C. The objective case is used as object of the Preposition.

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Examples:
1. The teacher complains that his students have never reported to him.
2. Without them, this project would have not been completed.
3. The committee members discussed their plans with Shiela and me.
D. The objective case is used as Subject of the Infinitive.
Examples:
1. Rex asked her to deliver the package.
2. Jezca required her students and me to report to school on Saturday.
3. Would you like them to sing for you?
E. The objective case is used as Object of an Infinitive.
Examples:
1. We found the culprit to be him.
2. The carpenter offered to help us.
F. The objective case is used as an Appositive of a noun in the objective case.
Examples:
1. The policeman helped old people, Mr. and Mrs. Neron and me, cross the
street. (me is the appositive of the direct object people).
2. We owe a debt of gratitude to just two women: Atty. Morales and her. (her is
the appositive of the preposition women).
3. We handed the interns, Dr. Porras and him, the bill for occupying the
apartment. (him is the appositive of the indirect object interns).
iii. Possessive Case
A. The possessive case is used to show possession.
(Possessive pronouns followed by nouns are also called possessive adjective>
Examples:

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1. Their car is in the repair shop.
2. Of course, the enemy would not divulge his secret weapon.
3. This book is hers.

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III. Verb
- is a word which shows action, links a word to the subject, helps
another verb or merely indicates existence.
Example:
Liza announced the result. (action verb – shows what the subject is
doing)
The soup tastes delicious. (linking verb – links delicious to the
subject soup)
They will enjoy the movie. (helping verb – ‘will’ help the verb enjoy
to show action)
Our classmates are here. (merely indicates the existence of
classmates)
The TENSE
BASIC TENSE: Present Tense
Ordinary Form
The ordinary form indicates an action done in the present.
Shielastudies the chapter.
My friends plan to have a froup study.
It can be used to indicate a habitual action.
I study my lessons every night.
Norman usually comes to school prepared
It is used to state a general truth.
The sun rises in the east.
The earth revolves around the sun.
It is used to state a permanent location.
Baguio City is in the northern Philippines.
Panay Island is in the north of Mindanao.
The present tense can be used to express a future action.
Our make-up class begins at 6:00 tonight.
The plane leaves tomorrow.

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Empathic Form
When one wants to stress the action that is done, the emphatic form
should be used. This form is used to emphasize an action.
(auxiliary verb (Do or Does) + the base form of the main verb)
Do/Does + V
I do study my lesson.
Miguel does study the chapter.
Present Progressive Form
This form is used to indicate an on-going action at the moment of
speaking.
(Be verb + present participle form of the main verb)
am / is / are + Ving
I am studying the chapter for the test.
The professors are planning to give a departmentalized
examination.
BASIC TENSE: Past Tense
Ordinary Form
The ordinary form of the past tense is used to indicate an action that took
place in the past. Adverbials like yesterday, an hour ago, last night, etc. are used
to point out the fact that the action took place at a certain time in the past.
I studied very hard last night.
Our group prepared very well for the presentation.
Emphatic Form

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When the validity of the past action is questioned, one can use the
emphatic form of the past tense to stress that the action took place. The
auxiliary verb did is used for both singular and plural subject.
(did + base form of the main verb)
Did + V
I did study my lesson.
Noel did study the chapter.
My friends did study the assignment.
Past Progressive Form
This form of the past tense is used to indicate the past on-going action
when another past action took place.
(be verb + present participle of the main verb)
Was / were + Ving
I was studying the chapter when the phone rang.
My classmates were answering the exercises when I entered
the classroom.
Used To Form
The used to form is used to state a past habitual action that is no longer
done at the present. When this statement is given, then one can infer that the
action is no longer done at the moment.
Used to + V
I used to study every night.
Mario used to watch movies before studying for the examination.
Going To Form
The form of the past tense is used to express a past plan that was not
done or accomplished.

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(be verb + going to expression that indicates futurity + base form of the main
verb)
Was / were +going to + V
I was going to study with my classmates.
We were going to attend the lecture but the household chores
had to be done first.
BASIC TENSE: Future Tense
Ordinary Form
The form of the future tense is used to indicate an action that will take
sometime in the future. It is formed by using WILL or SHALL with the base form
of the main verb.
(will / shall + base form of the main verb)
Will / Shall + V
I will study the chapter soon.
The group’s leader, Sonia shall submit the written report
tomorrow.
Future Progressive Form
The future progressive form is used to indicate action continuing in the
future. It is formed by using will be or shall be and the present participle form
of the main verb.
(will be / shall be + present form of the main verb)
Will be / shall be + Ving
Aileen will be reading her work in just a short while.
I shall be engaging in sports as soon as I get back from rest.

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Going To Form
When there is an intention to be done, the going to form of the future
tense can be used. It is formed by using the beverb with the expression going
to and the base form of the main verb.
(be verb + going to + base form of the main verb)
am / is / are + going to +V
I am going to procure the chemicals from the laboratory.
Rose is going to make the paradigm of our research.
COMPOUND TENSE: Present Prefect Tense
The present perfect tense is often called has or have tense. It is used to
indicate an action that:
a. took place at an indefinite time or over a period of the time in the past
or;
b. has just been completed.
(auxiliary verb, has / have + past participle form of the main verb)
has / have + Ved
Teresa has just eaten a juicy steak.
(Teresa has just recently finished eating a juicy steak. It denotes a past action
that has just occurred or has continued up to the present time. Just denoted an
action recently completed.)
Several of my students have reported on the life of Madamme Currie.
(The action happened before the time of speaking but definite time is not
known)
Pacita has written her report. (at some indefinite time in the past)
Pacita wrote her report yesterday. (Yesterday is an adverb that indicates
definite past time, that is why ordinary past tense is used.)

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** Certain adverbial expressions like just, since, for, already are often
used with the present perfect tense.
Since this morning, the research work has progressed.
(They stared they research in the morning and still continues to the present.)
For two months now, Josephine has improved a lot in her research
work.
(She still improves in her work.)
They have already worked on it.
(Already is used in affirmative sentences to express a completed action but
never used with the past tense.)
Present Perfect Progressive Tense
The present progressive or continuous form of the present perfect tense
emphasizes the continuous nature of the action or the duration of the action
throughout the period of thime.
(auxiliary verb, has / have + been + present participle form of the main verb)
Has / have + been + Ved
Junalynhas been waiting since this morning.
Geraldine and Bingbonghave not been eating since seven o’clock this
morning.
COMPOUND TENSE: Past Perfect Tense
The past perfect tense denotes a past action that happened prior to
another action or some particular past moment in mind.
(auxiliary verb, had + past participle form of the main verb)
had + Ved

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Teresa had eaten a juicy steak before her friends arrived. (The eating of
the steak had taken place before the arrival.)
We heard our professor in Chemistry had delivered a lecture on
television. (The lecture had taken place prior to the news)
COMPOUND TENSE: Future Perfect Tense
The future perfect tense shows an action that will be completed prior to
another future action or at a certain time in the future.
(shall have / will have + past participle form of the main verb)
shall have / will have + Ved / Ven
Teresa shall have eaten a juicy steak by the time the wine is brought in.
(The eating of the steak will be completed before the bringing of
the wine. It denotes a future action that will take place prior to another
future action.)
By the year 2050, man shall have made great progress in the field of
technology.
By noon today, JC shall have confirmed his flight.
SUBJECT – VERB AGREEMENT
A subject and its verb must agree in number. Number means singular (one) or plural
(more than one). Nouns and pronouns that are singular refer to one person, place or things
while plural nouns and pronouns refer to more than one person, place or things.
Singular: The spectator enjoys the game.
Life is a series of constant change.
Plural: The spectators enjoy the game.
Libraries offer us good stories or novels for leisurely reading.

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Use a singular verb with a compound subject that refers to one person or thing or that
generally conveys the idea of a unit.
My secretary and treasurer is very efficient.
Macaroni and cheese is my favorite dish.
When a singular subject or a plural subject is joined by either . . . or orneither . . . nor,
the verb agrees with the nearer subject.
Either my photo album or my pocketbooks are left on the
bench.
Neither the participants not the guest is in the auditorium.
Either the vegetables or the trees are affected by the
drought.
Neither the students nor the teacher is in the library.
Any group of words referring to a single thing or thought is used with a singular verb.
What we deserve is a renewal of our values.
Ham and eggs is my children’s favorite dish.
The Philippines is composed of three big islands.
Think, Talk and Write is written by Jean and David Giles.
The Colleges of Arts and Sciences Student Organization
manages the affair of the college.
Words of Amount and Time
Use a singular verb with a subject that expresses a fraction, a measurement, an
amount of money, a distance or a specific interval of time when it refers to a single unit.
Ten thousand is too much for a tuition fee.
Two-thirds of the amount was not yet raised.
Five hours seems too large for a trip.
Six yards of cloth was not enough for a curtain.
One hundred dollars is a large sum.

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If a prepositional phrase with a plural subject falls between the subject and the verb,
the verb is singular if its subject is considered as a single thing or thought. The verb is plural if
its subject is felt to be plural.
Five kilos of oranges was what we ordered.
Ten of the passengers were slaved.

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IV. Adjective
- is used to modify a noun or a pronoun. It maybe a word, a phrase or a
clause which answer the questions what kind, which one, how many,
and how much.
Examples:
We saw beautiful valleys and rugged mountains.
The rug on the floor is blue. (Phrase)
The man who spoke is a teacher. (Clause)
1. An adjective is a modifier which describes or limits a substantive – the
noun, pronoun or noun equivalent. It may be a word or a group of words.
Example:
I passed threeexam.
Those flowers on the deskl are roses. (The group is a phrase
modifier)
Those boys whom you saw are my children. (The group modifier is
a clausemodifier)
2. The little words a, an, and the are always adjectives. They are called
articles.
3. Possessive nouns and certain possessive pronouns are usually considered
adjectives.
Example:
Diona’s stamp collection is complete but her sister has not even
started her own collection.
4. A participle is a verb form used as an adjective.
Example:
The burning house lighted up the night sky.
5. A proper adjective is a word formed from a proper noun and like a proper
noun, begins with a capital letter.
Example:
Japan Japanese Cuisine
Elizabeth Elizabethan Costumes

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Asia Asian nNations
6. Adjectives are used in three ways: Attribute, appositive and predicate.
a. The attribute use is the direct modifier, which precedes the noun or
pronoun.
Example:
Luis wore a dark suit.
A beautiful, tall, slender pine stood near.
b. The appositive use explains the substantive which it directly
follows.
Example:
The speaker, tall and graceful, soon won her audience.
The tress, wilted and bare, stood on a hill.
c. The predicate use of the adjective is to complete the meaning of
the predicate. The predicate adjective is joined to the subject by a
linking verb.
Example:
That view is indeed magnificent and extraordinary.
His move is desperate but calculating.
COMPARISON OF MODIFIERS
There are three degrees of comparison.
Positive degree: The book is heavy.
Comparative degree: The dictionary is heavier than this book.
Superlative Degree: This new book is the heaviest book in the
library.
RULES TO REMEMBER
1. In general, form the comparative degree of short words by adding –er
and the superlative degree by adding –est.

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Examples:
short
soon
dark
shorter
sooner
darker
shortest
soonest
darkest
2. Form the comparative degree of most three or more syllable words by
adding more before the word and the superlative degree by adding more before
the word.
Examples:
beautiful
intelligent
favorably
more beautiful
more intelligent
more favorably
most beautiful
most intelligent
most favorably
3. Comparison to indicate less or least of a quality is accomplishes by using
the words less and least before the modifier.
Examples:
useful
hungry
highly
less useful
less hungry
less highly
least useful
least hungry
least highly
4. There are words that have irregular comparisons.
Examples:
good/well
bad/evil/ill
many/much
little
far
far
better
worse
more
less/lesser
father
further
best
worst
most
least
farthest
furthest
5. Some adverbs cannot be compared.
Examples:
entirely perfectly uniquely quite

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first
squarely
somewhat
never
always
now
indeed
absolutely
6. Avoid double comparisons.
Examples:
Wrong: The test today is the most easiest test given by the teacher
this semester.
Wrong: The test today is more easier that that given yesterday.
7. Do not omit other or else when comparing one thing with a group of
which it is a part.
Wrong: Aurelio jumped higher than anyone.
Right: Aurelio jumped higher than anyone else.
Wrong: Marc’s dog Café is smarter than any dog.
Right: Marc’s dog Café is smarter than any other dog.
8. Make your comparisons clear. (Make sure the pronoun agrees with the
antecedent).
Wong: The population of New York is greater than Chicago.
Right: The population of New York is greater than that of Chicago. (That
refers to population)
Right: The population of New York is greater than the population of
Chicago.
Wrong: The color of the sala is brighter than the kitchen.
Right: The color of the sala is brighter than that of the kitchen.
Wrong: The mangoes on the table are sweeter that in the
refrigerator.

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Right: The mangoes on the table are sweeter than those in the
refrigerator. (Those refers to mangoes. Notice the agreement in the
number of the pronoun and its antecedent.)
9. Since incomplete constructions can be confusing, both parts of the
comparison should be stated if there is danger of misunderstanding.
Unclear: I like her better than Cecilia.
Better: I like her better than I like Cecilia.
I like her better than Cecilia likes her.

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V. Adverb
- is used to modify a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. It may be
composed of a single word, a phrase or a clause.
Example:
She sang beautifully. (Single word)
The strangers came into the room. (Phrase)
Robert left when I came. (Clause)
1. an adverb modifies a verb, adjective, another adverb, a verbal, a
preposition or a conjunction.
Example:
She sings beautifully.(Beautifully modifies the verb sing)
He is a very great man. (Very modifies the adjective great)
By working faithfully, he won success. (Faithfully modifies the
gerund working)
She smiled rather shyly. (Rather modifies the adverb shyly)
The little girl, smiling happily, ran to meet her mother. (Happily
modifies the participle smiling)
She has learned to sing melodiously. (Melodiously modifies the
infinitive sing)
She came just before I left. (Just modifies the conjunction before)
2. adverbs are divided into three clauses: Simple, interrogative, conjunction.
a. Simple adverb is a simple modifier.
Example:
She spoke kindly.
b. An interrogative adverb is used in asking questions.
Example:
Where have you been?
c. A conjunctive adverb also called a relative pronoun, is a modifier which
is used to connect clauses.
Example:
I did not see you when I came in.
While I was cooking, the guests arrived.
I parked the car where the shade was.

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VI. Preposition
- shows the relationship between its object and some other ways in the
sentence.
Example:
We walked through the woods. (Through shows the relation
between woods and, its object, and walked, the verb)
I sat on the barrel.
Shiela is standing between two extremely tall trees.
LIST OF MOST COMMON PREPOSITIONS
about beside inside to
above besides like toward
across between near underneath
after beyond of until
against by off up
along despite on with
among down out within
around during outside without
at except over
before for past
behind from since
below in through
beneath into throughout
Some prepositions consist of more than one word. Here is a list of the most
common multiword prepositions:
along with in place of
because of in spite of
due to instead of
except for on account of
in addition to out of
in case of up to
in front of with the exception of

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PREPOSITIONS FOR TIME AND PLACE AND FOR INTRODUCING
OBJECTS
Time
 On is used with days.
We will meet on Tuesday.
The new school year begins on Thursday.
 At is used with noon, night, midnight, and with the time of day.
I will see the doctor at noon tomorrow.
We have dinner at 7:00 pm.
 In is used with other parts of the day, with months, with years, with
seasons.
She likes to golf in the afternoon.
The days are short in February.
This book was published in 2001.
 Since, for, by from—to, from—until, during, (with)in– expresses
extended time.
He has been gone since Last week. (He left last week and has not
returned.)
I’m going to Paris for a month. (I will spend a month there.)
She worked there from August to/until October. (Beginning in August,
ending in October.)
We must finish the project within a year. (No longer than a year.)
Place
 In – describes the point itself.
There is a wasp in the room.
 Inside – expresses something contained.
Put the present inside the box.
 On – talks about the surface.
I left your keys on the table.

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 At – talks about a general vicinity.
He was waiting at the corner.
 Over, above – when the object is higher than a point.
The plane flew over the city.
The lamp hangs above the couch.
 Under, underneath, beneath, below – when the object is lower than a
point.
The dog likes to sleep under the table.
My nephew hid underneath.
We relaxed beneath the trees.
The entire country is below sea-level.
 Next, by, next to, between, among, opposite – when the object is
close to a point.
He lives near the airport.
The post office is by the store.
I sat next to him at the party.
The restaurant is between Court St. and Miller Rd.
I found my book lying among the clothes on the floor.
The dining room is opposite the kitchen.
Introduce object of the verbs
 At – with verbs “glance”, “laugh”, “look”, “smile”, and “share”.
She took a quick glance at her reflection.
(exception with mirror: She took a quick glace in the mirror.)
I didn’t laugh at the jokes in the movie.
I’m looking at the computer screen.
We rejoiced at her quick recovery.
The customer smiled at you.
She’s staring at the blank page.
 Of – with verbs “approve”, “consist”, and “smell”.
We don’t approve of his behavior.

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The book consists of many sections.
She walked in smelling of expensive perfume.
 Of/about – with verbs dream and think.
I dream of travelling abroad.
Can you think of a better way to solve the problem?
I am thinking about the things I have to do at work tomorrow.
 For – with verbs “call”, “hope”, “wait”, “watch”, and “wish”.
Did someone call for a taxi?
He hopesfor a raise in salary next year.
I’m lookingfor my nurse.
We’ll waitfor the doctor in the waiting room.
You go order the food, and I’ll watchfor John.
I wishfor a healthy and happy family.
Frequently misused Preposition
Prepositions may sometimes be confused because of slang and the general
informality of speech. Here are some frequently misused prepositions.
 beside, besides. “Beside” means “next to,” whereas “besides” means “in
addition.”
The comb is beside the brush.
Besides planning the trip, she is also getting the tickets.
 between, among. Generally, “between” is used when two items are
involved; with three or more, “among” is preferred.
Between you and me, he is among friends.
 due to. “Due to” should not be used as a preposition meaning “because
of.”
Because of (not “due to”) his speeding, we were all ticketed.
 insideof. The “of” is always unnecessary.
Stay inside the house.
The man stayed outside(not “outside of”) the post office.

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VII. Conjunction
- is a word that joins words or group of words.
1. The following conjunctions are called coordinating conjunctions: and, but,
or, nor, for, yet.
Example:
We like pancake and milk shake. (Conjunction joining words)
Should we put it on a plate or in a bowl? (Conjunction joining
phrases)
2. Some other conjunctions go in pairs: Either – or, Neither – nor, Both –
and, Not only – but also. These are called correlative conjunctions.
Example:
Both JC and Mark bought bicycles with the money they save.
Either Jay or Jaycee owns the tablet.
Both Jezcaand Shiela bought new clothes.
3. Subordinating conjunctions are used to introduce adverb clauses: after,
as, although, as if, as much, as long as, soon as, because, before, if, in
order that, since, so that, than, though, unless, until, when, whenever,
while. (Some of these words may also be used as prepositions or other
parts of speech.)
VIII. Interjection
- is an exclamatory word that is not related with the other words in the
sentence. An exclamation point is usually used after an interjection,
but a comma may be used after a mild interjection.
Example:
Hurrah! The war is over.
Boy, did he hit that ball!
Well, what do you know about that.