1. Seeing Ourselves: An Analysis of Ideology and Fantasy in Popular Advertising
by Cassandra Ross
Queen's University Film Studies. Copyright © 2000
In the arena of advertising in modern Western society, the consumer can become numb from over-
saturation. Advertising stretches over all forms of media, with independence that critic Judith
Williamson says intentionally reflects our own human reality (Lord, 263). Advertising becomes a
natural presence for consumers; it overwhelms us until we stop trying to understand and decode
the images and slogans presented to us. In "The Rhetoric of the Image", critic Roland Barthes uses
particular advertising images as dissection models to systematically extract the meaning of cultural
codes. In her essay "Decoding Advertisements", Judith Williamson discusses the self-reflective
advertising system that assigns human values to products to promote the purchasing of these
products to satisfy a non-material need. Advertising, in effect, sells us ourselves, or at least what
we would like ourselves to be (264). The combined theories of Barthes and Williamson are a solid
springboard in discussing two advertisements: one in print and one in the medium of television.
The print advertisement is for a men's cologne called "Romance". The magazine ad features a
black and white photo of a man holding a woman as she bends backwards, careening almost to
the point of falling off of a tire swing. The second ad is a thirty second "spot" depicting three young
teenage girls who flirtatiously use their Coca Cola cards to get "free stuff" from a surprised (albeit
pleased) male clerk. In both ads, beyond the surface of the initial message there resides a
somewhat disturbing subtext of sexism, male dominance, and male fantasy. In order to sell their
products, Ralph Lauren and Coca Cola have chosen to use images that are fawning to engrained
ideas and desires in our traditionally male-dominated society. If advertising does in fact "sell us
ourselves", then it is important to detect and scrutinize the messages that reflect our perceived
desires, and not simply accept these messages as "given" and representative of us.
In "The Rhetoric of the Image" Roland Barthes begins his analysis of the advertisement by
identifying the linguistic message. The linguistic message has two functions within the ad that
Barthes' terms as "anchorage" and "relay" (175). The anchorage function acts as an anchor
between the possible signifieds, or meanings, and the meanings the advertisement wishes you to
identify. In other words, the anchor helps you choose "the correct level of perception"(175). The
"relay system" works in a complimentary relationship between text and image, where text (such as
a cartoon speech balloon), explains the image (176). Linguistic meaning has the most significance
in the cologne print ad, as the television ad relies almost exclusively on images. One page of the
two-page magazine ad is dedicated to an image of the cologne bottle with the words "Ralph Lauren
Romance", and in smaller letters, "men". The prominence of the manufacturing label in the ad is
the first linguistic anchor for the consumer. The text quickly identifies that the product is from
Ralph Lauren, a designer name that may connote (to the average male consumer) a high degree of
class and social good standing. Williamson argues that products provide a structure of meaning
that may be taken as "given" with time, such as Ralph Lauren being associated with good taste
(264). Simply the name "Ralph Lauren", therefore, promotes a desire in the consumer for more
than simply a bottle of fragrance, but a desire for definite human attributes. It is indeed only on the
bottom of the page where the caption "The men's fragrance by Ralph Lauren" identifies that the
bottle in the image contains cologne. Perhaps of greater interest is that with so few words, the
caption "Romance" is the solitary explanation for the accompanying image. The anchorage of the
caption acts as a kind of vice now to hold this meaning of "romance" in place and constrict the
reader from attempting other (less flattering) perceptions (175). In fact, it is this vague concept of
"romance" that allows for less flattering readings, especially when close inspection reveals a
subtext of male dominance and fantasy.
The linguistic message of advertisements, as stated before, does not easily relate to the television
advertisement. In the Coke ad, the only text comes at the very end of the spot, when the caption
"Show your card / Buy a Coke / Get a deal" comes onscreen as a means to simply explain the
actions of the commercial's characters. The relay system of meaning is most important in film and
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2. television dialogue, but the Coke ad is void of dialogue and relies solely on the images. Therefore,
using the images in the ads exclusively, we can divide the meanings into what Roland Barthes
coined the denotative (or perceptual iconic) meaning and the connotative (or cultural iconic)
meaning. The denotative meaning is the simple perceptions of the ad that is left when we strip the
message of eviction; it is an "Edenic" state, radically objective and innocent (177). We can assume
a certain denotative meaning in the print ad, since a photograph itself has mythic "naturalness"
due to the mechanical act of the camera guaranteeing objectivity (178). Of course, the framing,
subject choice and positioning of the photograph are all connotative, but the photograph itself is a
denotative representation of reality. The denotative meaning of the print ad is solely what we
perceive: a large bottle of cologne on one page, and a black and white image of a couple on a tire
swing on the other page. In the Coke ad we can perceive the jingly light music and the actions as
three girls enter a convenience store, interact briefly with two males and the clerk and obtain a
mixed amount of goods including popcorn and CDs. The detonated meaning is difficult to pinpoint,
as our minds always work to derive meaning (as in symbolic meaning) from what we see. The
connotative or cultural iconic meaning is the meat on the bones of denotative structure, and the
heart of extracting social meaning from advertising.
In her article, Judith Williamson was most concerned with decoding the connotative meaning of
advertisements. The connotative meaning takes the consumer beyond the deceptively simple
initial message of the ad, which is purely promoting a product (266). Advertisements do much
more than promote one product, they promote lifestyles, values, and they frequently emphasize
the product as a way of fitting into a social place (265). While promoting common desires, the
readings of an advertisement depend upon the individual situations of the reader.
For instance, the "Romance" cologne ad appeared in a Details magazine earlier this year. Details is
labelled clearly on the front cover as being a magazine "for men". Details is an upscale magazine,
containing humour, fashion, finance, and relationship (predominately heterosexual) advice. The
values promoted in Details supposedly mirrors that of its readers: namely the values of a young, single
heterosexual male with a decent job who wants to better himself financially and emotionally. The
placement of the ad here informs the reader that the ad will attempt to relate to this type of man.
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3. Alternatively, the Coke ad still in heavy rotation on television is most often shown when youth
orientated programming, such as after-school talk shows, are airing. The ad attempts to relate to
its young audience through the age of the characters, the youthful fun music, the bright colour
scheme, and the trendy clothes. It is good business to place ads where the intended audience will
have access, but the context of the ads placement also adds new connotative meanings to the
images. Both advertisements belong in the realms of masculinity and youth ideology as well as in
the realm of commercial gain.
Now that we understand the context of the "Romance" ad's placement, we can begin to understand
its meanings. The image in the ad (the photograph of the couple) is composed of rhetorical images
that, as Barthes states, work to signify an underline ideology (180). Initially we see a man holding a
woman on a tire swing as she leans back, allowing her dark gown to sway dramatically behind her.
Closer reading identifies all the elements of an underline male-dominated fantasy ideology. First
we have the euphoric values of fantasy in the image, initially expressed through the black and
white photography. Black and white colours remind the viewer of the past, and therefore this
representation of "romance" will connote a historical and "lost" time when romance perhaps had
different (male-dominated) values. Now we have the representation of the male subject. The man
is dressed in formal attire, but his clothes are slack and practical. The tie is loosened and the top
button of his shirt undone, a simple gesture which expresses to the male reader that the man in
the ad, like most men, hates to wear a tie. He is placed comfortably and securely on the tire,
supported by the tire ropes but in no danger of falling. The man, in short, is in complete control and
composure. The man in the ad relates to the male consumer reading the ad, through his ease and
apparent dominance of the scene. The reader is invited by the ad to become both observer and
subject (265). The reader wants to be the male subject of the ad because he has a desire for
dominance, especially over the female figure.
In comparison to the man, the woman is in a complete state of dependence and vulnerability. Her
dress looks fairly restricting and uncomfortable. The black and white contrast extenuates her small
waist and long blond hair. Simply the slim body and blond hair identifies the woman as the western
ideal of femininity, and her placement in the image further exaggerates her fantasy quality. The
woman's body is flung back and she depends entirely on the male to support her. If he lets go, she
will fall. Finally, of greatest significance, is the expression on the faces of our two subjects. The
man has a stern look of composure as he gazes down at the woman. His face is in clear focus and
is quite centrally located in the image's composition. The woman has a face that lacks definition.
She appears to be smiling, but her eyes are closed. It would be difficult simply by their faces alone
not to immediately relate to the man. The outstretched curve of the woman's neck is very
prominent and important. In classical imagery, the neck is a symbol of vulnerability and
helplessness. The man in the ad gazes at her neck, symbolically dominating her. The ad as a
whole, with all these connotations included, becomes a sign for the signified meaning of
"romance". "Romance" is equated with domination, control, and composure for the man, and
submissive vulnerability for the woman. The cologne ad sells more than fragrance; it sells to the
Details reader the kind of romance he may wish to experience, based on popular male fantasy.
Finally, we have the similar cultural iconography of the television Coca Cola ad. The ad is a strange
mix of "girl-power" and engrained male domination fantasies. The three female subjects of the
Coke ad are young, around fifteen, and begin the spot by happily and aggressively pushing their
way into a convenience store. The store is inhabited by three males, apparently older by a few
years, who act as voyeurs to the action. When the girls open the door to the store, it is clear that
they are entering a male-dominated realm because they remain monitored by the masculine gaze.
The two boy customers (the only other customers in the store) are positioned directly in front of the
Coke products. The males are aligned by their position with the product being sold, and therefore
represent the dominant viewpoint and ideology for the entire commercial. When the dominant girl
moves between the boys to grab three Cokes, she shares a brief glance with one of the males
watching her through the cooler's glass. The male raises his eyebrows at the girl, a symbolic
gesture that will be repeated throughout the ad. While one connotative meaning of the raised
eyebrow could be read as masculine surprise at aggressive female gestures, it could also be read
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4. as a pleasurable half-acceptance to the "feisty female" who is there to entertain the male ego, as
indeed the girls do not fail to entertain male sexual fantasy.
The key sequence in the ad occurs when the girls approach the counter and enact what could be
considered liberated girlish fun, or sexual fantasy. We see the females from behind because the
sequence is shot from the boy customer's point of view. The two males watch from classic voyeur
positioning in the sequence's dominant foreground. In effect, we can only see the females at this
point through or in front of the dominant males. The females lean over the counter and appear to
be pulling their shirts down, or their skirt and pant legs up, to the male clerk. Meanwhile, the boy
customers acknowledge their pleasure from the girl's "show" by looking at each other and again
raising their eyebrows. The clerk looks at girls, raises his eyebrows as well and leaves the frame.
The only communication we witness between the girls at this point is a brief wink and smile
between two of them, a gesture that is meant to give the message of girlish fun. It is the only brief
second where a female audience member may be able to directly identify with the characters. The
clerk returns with an indiscriminate pile of stuff for the girls, and we finally see that the females
were not (simply) showing off some skin for the clerk, but were showing him their Coke cards which
had been strategically placed in a bra, shoe and up a thigh. At the end of the ad, the girls could be
seen as victors of male dominance, except that the very last scene gives the credits in front of a
blurry image of one of the males drinking a Coke with his arm around two of the girls. The girls are
now admiringly looking up at him. Although the males in the ad were no more than voyeurs to the
female action, they nonetheless have been given dominance and pleasure in what Williamson calls
"the imaginary social structure" of the Coke ad (264). The ad sways between feminist
independence and male fantasy, particularly fantasy concerning young teenage girls as sex
objects. The intended audience for the spot is youth and easily able to place themselves in the
character's roles. Girls are meant to believe the female characters are really harmless fun, while
boys can dream that they too will be in the situation to see a free and unexpected strip tease. The
television ad is more insidious than the print ad because it is meant to appeal to both genders,
although it obviously promotes a more male dominated fantasy where women exist to please and
titillate.
The old expression is "sex sells" but what really sells is male dominated sexual fantasy. This is not
to say that all advertisements are sexist, or sexist against only women, but it is to say that in many
ads what may seem like a simple image of "romance" or a fun trip to the store is really an entire
structure of meaning. Roland Barthes and Judith Williamson employ almost scientific methods to
extract rhetoric from advertising images but even their methods are not foolproof. The structure of
meaning in an advertisement will vary upon the person perceiving it. The important thing is to
recognize common dominant ideologies in ads, and the values that advertisements want us to
desire and attain through their product. If we must buy into ourselves, we should at least make an
informed decision before we accept and pay for ideology which is not our own.
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