2. 2
Index
1. Introduction…………………………………………………………………………..p.3
2. Global Training and Development………………………………………...p.4
3. Global Mind-set…………………………………………………………………….p.7
4. Experimental Learning…………………………………………………….…...p.8
5. Cross-Cultural Training (CCT)……………………..………………….…….p.10
6. Conclusion…………………………………………………….………………….….p.14
References
3. 3
1. Introduction
Many institute and academics have been trying to definite what the term
Globalisation refers to. Indeed, the globalisation definition might assume a plethora meaning,
which differs for little nuance, and in particular, it depends on where the single study wants
to focus on.
The definition offered by Gunter and Hoeven (2004) is particularly important since,
first of all, give an idea of movement so that captures and describes the high speed of the
world’s changes, which have never stopped. Hence:
“Globalization is a term that is used in many ways, but the principal underlying idea is
the progressive integration of economies and societies. It is driven by new technologies, new
economic relationships and the national and international policies of a wide range of actors,
including governments, international organizations, business, labour and civil society”.
As a consequence, over the recent years, the expiration around international
organization has been growing within the widening of the global economy. Hence, also the
role of the Cross cultural training has to be read as an international effort in term of
maintaining high performance, retain and growing of the international business for the
organization. In fact, the importance of the worldwide leadership is recognised by employees
who are spread everywhere.
What is more, the American Management Association has confirmed this trend, a
survey, actually, conducted over approximately 1400 companies has suggested that 47.7
percent of them consider the “developing global capabilities in their leadership” as a high or,
in some case, very high priority.
Therefore, this paper is going to provide a detailed analysis of Global training and
development, highlighting, where it is necessary, the critical aspect.
4. 4
After having supplied the explanation of what training and development are, it has
been investigated the reasons why the organizations have been increasingly adopting the so-
called Global training and development.
First of all, it has been evidenced that understanding how the individuals learn around
the word has a paramount importance, in order to address the training efficacy and
continually improving their skills.
Then, it has been focusing on the development of a global mindset for the expatriates
so that addressing efficacy to their new future international assignment.
Naturally, a section has been cantered on the Experimental Learning since by
understanding what the optimal way of how individuals learn is, it is possible to provide a
well-structured training strategy, and the best model that has to be adopted for the Cross-
cultural training. The analysis of the latter accounts for two aspects: pre and post departure
training.
Finally, the work has concluded outlining how the culture assumes a key role in
addressing the results of social beliefs and comprehend how every single belief has to be
contextualised in the county where it is from in the way of capturing which is the best driver
to use during the Cross-cultural training. The latter has is examined, in particular, under the
effectiveness perspective of the pre and post departure training.
2. Global Training and Development
Nowadays, it is a shared opinion among academics and practitioners that the
globalization has dramatically changed the business world. In particular, Hodgetts and
Luthans (2000) have outlined as the transformed dimension of the economy from local to
global, has to be centrally considered when business actions have been implemented.
5. 5
Especially, whenever a company enters into a multinational market, the complexity of its
operations substantially increased.
Therefore, since the international market has been increasingly becoming competitive
and dynamic (D’Netto et al. 2008), the firms have to deal with some issues, such as the
constantly improving production methods and the technological progress, which may make
their life so difficult that the survivor in the new market is quite impossible. Moreover, owing
to the success of an organisation depends also on the job performance of the employees, the
attraction and the consequent retaining of the most suitable workforce with multiple skills,
as well as maintaining the employees motivated, assume a vital role for every organisation.
As a result, the Cross-Cultural Training (CCT) has been becoming one of the principal tools for
the international Human Resources over the years.
Broadly speaking, Training refers to a series of activities, which have been creating to
enhance the job skills for archiving the organisational objectives in the most strategic way.
Indeed, according to Karthik (2012), training objectives have to indicate to the trainer what is
expected out of him/her once the training program has been terminated. In addition, a
further important aspect is that one of the training purposes is to provide a dynamic approach
in order to achieve consistent outcomes with a flexible and malleable structure and enhance
the experts’ skills (Kulkani, 2013).
Meanwhile, Development aims to increase abilities with respect to some future
positions or jobs, and generally it is addressed to managers and executives so that Dowling
and Welsh (2004) have referred as leadership development.
Hence, Global training refers to the training for an international assignment, where,
first of all, an important aspect is understanding the role which an international job covers,
for instance, the county-specific country environment as well as the strategic mission which
the company has adopted. Consequently, also the International assignment expatriate
training has been considered to be the next crucial step to ensure the expatriate’s
effectiveness and success abroad. In fact, a survey, conducted by Finccord (2014), the total
number of expatriates worldwide amounted to around 50.5 million in 2013, with an annual
6. 6
growing rate of 2.4% since 2009. Hence, it has been forecast that by 2017, the number will
pick approximately 56.8 million.
The expatriates, in particular, have been defined by Littrell et al. (2006) have defined
as “individuals who have relocated from one country to another one for at least one year”,
and they can be classified into two types: the so-called Parent National Country (PMN) whose
national origin is the same as that of the corporate headquarter. Alternatively, the Third
National Country (TNC) where the country origin is different from the headquarter is located.
However, it may occur the so-called “expatriates Failure”, namely the incapacity of
adjustment in the environment of the “host country” (Christensen and Harzing 2004), which
brings to a not satisfying performance at international assignments or a premature return to
the own home country prior to having completed their overseas project. Hence, as Suutari
and Burch (2001) have argued, in order to avoid such situations, it needs managers with a
high level of international experience, which, on the other hand, it has been showed not to
happen.
As a result, a variety of studies (Cole, 2011, p.1505 and Abbott et al., 2006) have
evidenced as such “expatriates failure” is a crucial issue. In fact, the repatriation from an
international assignment may be very expensive under the monetary aspect for the company,
for instance, it has been detected that a US company has expended around $1 million because
of this problem. What is more, this expense can affect not only the so-called direct costs,
which account for training, relocation and compensation of replacement, but even the
indirect ones, which involve in lower job performance for international customer, losing
customers and therefore market share, a lower staff morale in foreign subsidiary and
additional time to looking for a new suitable candidate for the international assignment.
7. 7
3. Global Mindset
The global mindset is a vital concept in order to have a clear idea of how the global
leadership development is implemented. In particular, the former has been defined as the
capacity of approach the world under a wide perspective, in order to “engage in a
boundaryless and synthesized cognitive process that identifies opportunities and innovation
in complexity” (Rogers and Bloski, 2010, p. 19). Indeed, according to Evans et al. (2002), the
mindset has to be observed under a two-folded perspective: the psychological, namely,
personal profile, as well as, the strategic, professional aspect so that it can be seen as the
capacity to accept the cultural diversity in the work environment and as an attitude which
allows people to find a correct equilibrium among business, countries and functional
priorities, typical of an international atmosphere.
However, although the global mindset has been increasingly assuming a relevant role
under the global leadership and trading, as Anatharam et al. (2010) and Cohen (2010) have
claimed, there is the general tendency to overlook the factors which determine it either at
corporate level either at individual level, and in particular how it contributes to the success of
international companies. Hence, Felicio et al. (2015) have bridged this gap, underlining that
the individual global mindset is influenced by the cognition, knowledge and behavior,
whereas under the corporate level it is affected by analytical posture, risk-taking posture,
aggressive posture, situational posture and strategical posture. In particular, with the term
posture has referred to the approach of an enterprise in the international business to the
current long-term goals.
8. 8
4. Experimental Learning
The majority of scholars and researchers have observed that experiential learning is
fundamental to address results at the end of the training since at the base of the latter there
is figuring out how the learning process.
First of all, according to McCarthy (2010) the Jacobs’ model has claimed that job
experience is affected by all the (private) life events, which have direct and immediate
relevance on the job attitude, motivation, and performances. Such concept has found support
in the four-stage cyclical model proposed by Kolb (1984), in which the learning has been seen
as a four step process: the concrete experience leads to a reflective observation, then an
abstract conceptualization and finally an active experimentation. Further improvements,
devised by Kolb and Kolb (2005), have brought the so-called “Theory of Experience”, which
has become the most persuasive model in the field of management learning. On the other
hand, Reynolds (2009) has strongly criticized such model, since it does not take into
consideration the social factors, the critical reflection as well as the meta-learning process.
An alternative approach, hence, has been developed by Nonaka (1995), who has
highlighted the interaction among various forms of knowledge, in particular, the knowledge
creation is facilitated by such interactions so that created the so-called the “Nonaka’s
knowledge spiral”. In particular, Nonaka and Teece (2001, p. 14) have argued that:
“Knowledge is a context-specific because it depends on a particular time and without context
it is information, not knowledge”. Actually, this theory has been commonly used in the
management international business literature, since not only it is in line with numerous
theories of learning, for instance, the dialogical-based theory (Holman 2000) as well as the
action-orientates theories, ( e.g. Kolb 1984), but also it has proposed the concept that cultural
knowledge is acquired through social interaction.
Indeed, this model involves the creation of several interaction of tacit and explicit
knowledge, which can be transferred in four modes: socialization, externalization,
combination and internalization, “in form of a spiral where the end of the each loop is higher
9. 9
than the end of the previous one” (Lenartowicz et al. 2014), as it has been illustrated in the
following figure.
Figure 1: Knowledge spiral, (Nonaka,1995; p.5).
However, tacit knowledge is present at the beginning of the knowledge process, since
it has been considered as a pre-requirement for the creation process. Therefore, it brings
more advantages given that is difficult to be imitable. On the other hand, this framework has
not been utilized within the context of cultural learning but has been proven useful in terms
cultural knowledge as it revolves around tacit knowledge.
As a result, Wyss-Flamm (2002) has developed an alternative and more appropriate
model of knowledge creation, it is called multicultural teams, which consists of 4 phases. The
first one is called experiencing the difference, which corresponds with the concrete
experimentation. At this phase, members of a multicultural team have their first contact each
other and start having their experience, for instance, feeling and perceiving the differences
among them. Whereas, during the second phase, the individual reflect upon the experience
and try to make a sense of it. This phase, which is named “Articulating Juxtaposition”, is
comparable to Nonaka’s externalization stage. Then, the third phase can be considered as a
substantial repetition of the first one but on a broader scale. Such level corresponds to the
internationalization of Nonaka’s framework and throughout this, the individual is full of
expectation. Finally, the last phase is called “Resolving Difference” and basically takes into
consideration the clarification of the differences in the tension from the previous stages.
10. 10
Therefore, based on the idea of Lenartowicz et al. (2014), an effective cultural learning
program has to cover the following features: firstly it has to begin with a cultural experience
(Tacit Knowledge) Secondly, it has to finish the improved tacit knowledge of the prior step.
Thirdly, it has to include several phases where there is the presence of continued interaction
between tacit and explicit knowledge. Finally, it has to be considered that it is necessary that
whole process has been constantly implemented until the predetermined goals have been
totally reached.
5. Cross-Cultural Training (CCT)
Before entering in details of what Cross-Cultural Training (CCT) is, it seems opportune
to provide a definition of culture, since it is able to affect the training in a different way.
Although, defining what the culture means is not easy, researchers and academics, such as
Silvester et al. (1999) have claimed that the culture can be seen as the result of a collective
process which elaborates the so-called “sense-making”, in particular, in terms of
individualism, religion, power distance and avoidance. For example, the culture may impact
how the difference between the genders are perceived, and, every interaction among
individuals is influenced by the cultural environment, where they have grown up (Briscoe,
Schuler and Tarique, 2012).
Hence, different cultures may change also the way how individuals perceive the same
item, (Yavorsky et al., 2010), hence, by implementing a training strategy, the different
background of individual have to be taken into account (Tyler, 1999). In fact, it has been
observed, diverse application of the training around the word. For instance, Hodgettsd and
Luthans (2000) have demonstrated that culture dominated by individualism, such as USA,
Canada, UK, Australia, have shown an inclination to consider principally themselves, whereas,
other countries, such as South America and Pakistan, are characterized by a lower
individualism and more orientation toward a collectivism.
11. 11
Therefore, comprehending the main differences between cultures is the base for an
effective CCT, in particular under the relationship between trainers and learners. Actually,
evidence of this has been brought by Chang (2004), who, with his empirical study, has shown
how the CCT has performed highest results on Taiwanese learners rather than US learners,
especially in encouraging the self-confidence and self-expression. Furthermore, the training
can be considered as effective whether it is able to flexible and adaptable at any context and
time duration. Indeed Shahazad et al. (2011) have stressed how “fast and inflexible training
will not any positive outcomes for the expatriates”. Likewise, Campbell (2016) have outlined
the importance of “preparation, openness, and flexibility” as the “keys to success” (Campbell
2016, p 14).
There are no doubts that the “Global Leadership and Organizational Behaviour
Effectiveness” (GLOBE) by House (2004) is fundamental to comprehend the difference
between the different cultures. The GLOBE study analyse 62 societies. The methods used for
this project throughout survey of about 17, 3000 managers of 951 organizations. The main
purpose of the Globe project has been to find whether the characteristics, which a leader has
to have got, are universally recognized by every different culture. Its findings have shown that
the power of a charismatic leadership is generally powerfully across every culture.
However, the principal limit of this project has been not to detect the personal
individual dimension or predict particular culture of the organization. Indeed, Venaik and
Brewer, (2013) have argued that, since the methods used to go forward the GLOBE are based
on the national cultural dimension, such scales are not suitable at the individual level.
Actually, items used for measure culturally dimension are not relevant to measure the single
individual. Furthermore, national culture scales is often used incorrectly for the organization.
The outcomes of study have shown that the culture dimensions scaled are completely invalid
to measure the culture of one firm. Therefore, Veinaik and Brewer (2013) have concluded
that the procedures implemented during the GLOBE project have been overstated. However,
they have not argued the validly of such model, but just the confines and the right uses of this
project.
The CCT is defended as “any planned intervention designed to increase the knowledge
and skills of expertise to live and work effetely and achieve general life satisfaction in an
12. 12
unfamiliar host culture” (Kealey and Protheroe, 1996). In other words, it is a development of
orientation and skills improvement mostly on Host culture and Work life behaviour.
Consequently, methods and length of the training process have to be decided accurately
under an adequate study about the culture of the host country. (Shen 2005; Hutchings, 2005).
In addition, Waxim and Panaccio (2005) have identified three different approaches for
implementing the CCT, namely, the cognitive method, used for the non-participative
technique, such as a conference or frontal class, which unfortunately leads to a dispersion of
information. Then, the behaviour method, which applies the host’s communication learning
to develop the skills of the expertise. Finally, the effective approach, which aims to generate
a reaction in order to create a critical cultural incident and evocate on the individual a critical
analysis of the information.
Furthermore, the previous literature has provided two main instructional model for a
CCT application: the so-called ADDIE (Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation, and
Evaluation), or the Black and Mendenhall’s model (BMM).
The former, according to Kang (2015), roots on the creation of a sort of positive
evaluative cycle able to ensure the effectiveness of the international assignment. However,
in order to reach such effectiveness, the model as well as the underlying strategy has to be
constantly improved so that being adapted to the changed situation.
On the other hand, the BBM Model seems to be more appropriate. In fact, as
explained by Ghafoor et al. (2011), given that the learning process can be divided into three
phases, namely, attention, retention, and reproduction, highlighting how these three aspects
are influenced by the individual difference in expectations as well as motivation, assumes a
key role in the CCT implementation.
Furthermore, it illustrates how the expatriates have the ability to adapt themselves to
a new environment. In fact, at first glance, they become aware of the cultural behaviour, then,
because of a deeper reflection, they are able to understand what have learnt and finally the
learners practice the important behaviour. Additionally, the role of the feedback does not
have to be overlooked in order to obtain the predetermined results. The BBM model,
13. 13
moreover, points out how considering the level of rigor, that is a scale to which expatriate
and trainer are both involved, is essential for an optimal CCT implementation. In fact, a low
level of rigors involves in restrictive behaviour by the trainer, the learner is using the passive
skills, whilst, in a high rigor context, trainer and expatriates’ participation is extended.
However, the CCT can be divided into pre and post departure training. Some
academics, such as Mendenhall (1999) and Avril and Magnini (2007), have recognized that
significantly positive effects are created by the former. The pre-departure training, actually,
is important and useful for an international assignment due to the change to give significant
information about host country before the assignment. Indeed, the expatriates develop
strategy for dealing with new culture and context, and for adapting to new and ambiguous
situation in the future assignment abroad, reducing the risk of failure due to culture shock,
reducing anxiety and creating, in this way, improvement for the organization (Caliguiri et al.
2001; Sims and Scharared 2004).
Moreover, the pre-departure training is important in order to learn the language of
the host country. In fact, even though the English, which is the language of the business, can
be helpful in the interactions in the work environment, it does not supply enough knowledge
for going inside the costume and tradition of the host country (Froster, 2000).
Unfortunately, evidence shows that the organisations do not always adopt the pre-
departure training, due to lack of time as well as the absence of training expertise (Shen and
Darby, 2006). Indeed, the survey of The Institute of Sustainable Development and
Architecture, conducted by Cermagic and Smith (2011), has revealed that the 76% of the
expatriates did not receive pre-departure training. A further study conducted by El Mansour
and Wood (2010) over the CCT of American manager in Morocco, has noticed the complete
deficiency of language tuition in the pre-departure training.
On the other hand, the Post-departure training is usually planned from the Host
organization which the expatriates has arrived. Although the Post-departure training, which
is less considered by the literature, and there are not studies, which compares the
effectiveness of the two types of departure training (Wurtz, 2014), the most important
benefits from the post-departure training is that the adjustment and the intervention can be
14. 14
on in ‘real time’. Then again the intervention is fast and more effective than of pre-departure
training. This is very important for two reasons: time-consuming, direct and indirect cost.
(Mendenhall, 1999).
In addition, Rubertson (2009) has highlighted that such paramount importance stems
from the fact that it creates a point of contact with the precedent expatriates in term of
sharing information about country, job and create the first social interaction. In fact, as Ko
and Yang (2011) have argued that, sometimes, what is not done in terms of the local legal
system during the pre-departure training, it is implemented during the post-departure
training. Indeed, having a wide comprehension about the local law, such as taxes, as well as
topics as safety and sexual harassment, plays a key role in the adjustment process (Briscoe et
al. 2012).
6. Conclusion
Therefore, this critical review, by firstly evidencing the impact of the globalisation on
the worldwide economy and then analysing the extremely relevance of possessing a global
mindset in the comprehension of the differences between business and culture around the
word, aims to point out the importance of global training and Development.
Moreover, the analysis of how some factors are able to simplify the learning in every
culture, has been read as a way to provide different methods of learning around the world so
that reach an high-quality of training.
Hence, through a deep breakdown of the CCT, it has been highlighted as the pre and
the post departure training have a vital relevance for the effectiveness of the international
assignment in a variety of ways, namely, increasing of job performance, decreasing of anxiety
and the right expectations.
15. 15
In conclusion, it has been evidenced how the global development training has to
dealing with continually significant changes in the business and workplace. As a result, it
seems imperative considering that these numerous influences, such as changing of culture,
globalisation and technology have led to a continuously implementation and enhancement
of the strategy in order to reach profitable and as much as possible outcomes for the Global
Training and Development.
16. 16
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