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- 1. Criminology Today
An Integrated Introduction
CHAPTER
Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e
Frank Schmalleger
Copyright © 2017 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved
Social Structure
Theories
7
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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e
Frank Schmalleger
Major Principles of Sociological
Theories
• Social structure theories examine:
Institutional arrangements within a
social structure
Social processes as they affect
socialization and have an impact on
social life
• Macro focus
Stress types of behavior likely to be
exhibited by group members
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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e
Frank Schmalleger
Figure 7–1 Major Principles of Sociological Theories of Crime
Source: Schmalleger, Frank, Criminology. Printed and Electronically reproduced by permission of Pearson
Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.
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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e
Frank Schmalleger
Key Sociological Explanations For
Crime
• Social structure theories
Crime is the result of an individual's
location within the structure of society.
• Social process and social development
theories
Crime is the end product of various
social processes.
• Conflict theories
Crime is the product of class struggle.
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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e
Frank Schmalleger
Social Structure Theories
• See formal and informal economic and
social arrangements of society as the
root causes of crime and deviance
• See negative aspects of social structure
as producers of criminal behavior
• Highlight arrangements within society
that contribute to low SES of
identifiable groups as significant causes
of crime
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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e
Frank Schmalleger
Social Disorganization Theory
• Associated with the ecological school of
criminology
• W.I. Thomas and Florian Znaniecki
Found crime rates rose among displaced
persons
Suggested cause was social
disorganization due to immigrants'
inability to transplant norms and values
from home cultures into the new one
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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e
Frank Schmalleger
The Chicago School
• Social ecology
Links structure, organization of human
community to interactions with its
localized environment
Social pathology-based disease model
• Robert Park and Ernest Burgess
Viewed cities as having five concentric
zones, each with unique characteristics
and populations
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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e
Frank Schmalleger
Figure 7–2 Chicago’s Concentric Zones
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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e
Frank Schmalleger
Shaw and McKay
• Applied concentric zone model to study
of juvenile delinquency
• Found offending rates remained
constant over time within zones of
transition
• Cultural transmission
Traditions of delinquency transmitted
through successive generations in the
same zone
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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e
Frank Schmalleger
The Chicago School
• Research demonstrated tendency for
crime to be associated with urban
transitional zones.
• Key contribution of ecological school
Society has a major influence on human
behavior.
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Frank Schmalleger
The Criminology of Place
• Environmental criminology
• Emphasizes importance of geographic
location and architectural features in
terms of prevalence of victimization
continued on next slide
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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e
Frank Schmalleger
The Criminology of Place
• Sherman
"Hot spots" of crime
Place-based crime prevention
• Stark
Theory of deviant neighborhoods
continued on next slide
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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e
Frank Schmalleger
The Criminology of Place
• Broken windows theory
Wilson and Kelling
Neighborhood physical deterioration
lead to increased crime, delinquency,
vandalism
Led to increase in "order maintenance
policing" and crackdown on quality-of-
life offenses
continued on next slide
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Frank Schmalleger
The Criminology of Place
• Defensible space
Oscar Newman
The range of mechanisms that combine
to bring an environment under the
control of its residents
continued on next slide
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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e
Frank Schmalleger
The Criminology of Place
• Criminology of place holds that location
can be as predictive of crime as the
lifestyles of victimized individuals or
social features of victimized
households.
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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e
Frank Schmalleger
Collective Efficacy and Crime
• Order maintenance policies may be less
effective in reducing crime than
empowering residents to exert positive
social control in their neighborhoods.
• Collective efficacy
Collective ability of residents to produce
social action to meet common goals and
preserve shared values
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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e
Frank Schmalleger
Strain Theory
• Strain
The pressure that individuals feel to
reach socially determined goals
• Anomie (Robert K. Merton)
A disjunction between socially approved
means to success and legitimate goals
continued on next slide
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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e
Frank Schmalleger
Strain Theory
• Merton said legitimate goals are
desirable to all but acceptable means to
achieve them are not equally available.
continued on next slide
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Frank Schmalleger
Strain Theory
• Crime becomes an alternative means to
success for those lacking the tools
necessary to succeed in socially
approved ways.
• Not everyone accepts legitimacy of
socially approved goals.
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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e
Frank Schmalleger
TABLE 7-1 GOALS AND MEANS DISJUNCTURE
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Frank Schmalleger
Relative Deprivation
• Messner and Rosenfeld blame crime on
inconsistencies in the American Dream.
• Relative deprivation
Economic and social gaps between rich
and poor living in close proximity
continued on next slide
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Frank Schmalleger
Relative Deprivation
• Distributive justice
People's perceptions of their rightful
place in reward structure of society
Culturally dependent
continued on next slide
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Frank Schmalleger
Relative Deprivation
• Types of relative deprivation
Personal
• Individual feels deprived compared with
others
Group
• Communal sense of injustice shared by
members of a group
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Frank Schmalleger
General Strain Theory (GST)
• Robert Agnew reformulated strain
theory into a comprehensive
perspective.
• Sees crime as a coping mechanism to
help people deal with socioemotional
problems generated by negative social
relations
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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e
Frank Schmalleger
Figure 7–4 The Six Central Propositions of General Strain Theory
Source: The Six Central Propositions of General Strain Theory by Robert Agnew from Pressured Into Crime: An
Overview of General Strain Theory (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006).
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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e
Frank Schmalleger
General Strain Theory
• Expands upon traditional strain theory
Widens focus
Strain may have cumulative effect on
delinquency.
More comprehensive account of
adaptations to strain
More fully describes wide variety of
factors affecting choice of delinquent
adaptations to strain
continued on next slide
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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e
Frank Schmalleger
General Strain Theory
• Agnew says chronic or repetitive strain
creates predisposition for delinquency.
May manifest as negative affective
states
continued on next slide
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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e
Frank Schmalleger
General Strain Theory
• Strain theories share two features.
Focus on negative relationships with
others
Argue that adolescents pressured into
delinquency by negative affective states
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Frank Schmalleger
Culture Conflict Theory
• Root cause of crime found in clash of
values over acceptable or proper
behavior
• Thorsten Sellin
Conduct norms provide valuative basis
for human behavior, are acquired early
in life through childhood socialization
Clash of norms between variously
socialized groups results in crime
continued on next slide
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Frank Schmalleger
Culture Conflict Theory
• Primary culture conflict
A fundamental clash of cultures
• Secondary culture conflict
Smaller cultures within the primary one
clash
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Frank Schmalleger
Subcultural Theory
• Subculture
A collection of values and preferences
communicated to participants through a
process of socialization
• Subcultural theory
Sociological perspective emphasizing
the contribution made by variously
socialized cultural groups to the
phenomenon of crime
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Frank Schmalleger
Focal Concerns
• Walter Miller identified a lower class
subculture with its own values and
norms.
• Behaviors upholding these norms may
violate those of middle-class culture.
• Crime is not a consequence of poverty
and lack of opportunity but emanates
from values characteristic of these
subcultures.
continued on next slide
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Frank Schmalleger
Focal Concerns
• Trouble
Getting in, staying out, dealing with
trouble
• Toughness
Concern with masculinity
• Smartness
Ability to outsmart or con others and
avoid being duped
continued on next slide
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Frank Schmalleger
Focal Concerns
• Excitement
Search for thrills: fighting, gambling,
picking up women, etc.
• Fate
The concept of luck, being lucky
• Autonomy
Taking care of oneself, not getting
pushed around
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Frank Schmalleger
Delinquency and Drift
• Gresham Sykes and David Matza
• Members of delinquent subcultures also
participate in the larger culture,
understand conventional values, know
their offending is wrong.
• Use neutralizing self-talk to mitigate
shame and guilt associated with
violating social norms.
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Frank Schmalleger
Figure 7–5 Techniques of Neutralization
Source: Schmalleger, Frank, Criminology. Printed and Electronically reproduced by permission of Pearson
Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.
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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e
Frank Schmalleger
Delinquency and Drift
• Delinquents drift between crime and
conventional action, choosing the most
expedient.
• Use neutralization techniques to
overcome guilt, keep from being
alienated from larger society
• Drug dealers, street robbers,
carjackers, hackers all use techniques
of neutralization
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Frank Schmalleger
Violent Subcultures
• Franco Ferracuti and Marvin Wolfgang
• Violence is a learned form of adaptation
to problematic life circumstances.
• Learning to be violent takes place
within the context of a subculture
emphasizing violence over other forms
of adaptation.
• Group's value system constitutes a
subculture of violence.
continued on next slide
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Frank Schmalleger
Violent Subcultures
• Southern subculture of violence
Explains geographic differences in
violent crime in U.S.
Some forms of violence more acceptable
in southern U.S.
• Black subculture of violence
Explains high rate of black under-class
homicide in U.S.
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Frank Schmalleger
Differential Opportunity Theory
• Richard Cloward and Lloyd Ohlin
Blended subcultural and strain theory
• Two types of socially structured
opportunities for success
Legitimate
• Access may be denied to members of
lower class subcultures
continued on next slide
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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e
Frank Schmalleger
Differential Opportunity Theory
• Two types of socially structured
opportunities for success
Illegitimate opportunity structure
• Subcultural paths to success not
approved of by wider culture
continued on next slide
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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e
Frank Schmalleger
Differential Opportunity Theory
• Delinquent behavior results from:
Ready availability of illegitimate
opportunities
Replacement of cultural norms with
expedient subcultural rules
• Two necessary parts to delinquent act
Behavior violates basic social norms.
When officially known, criminal justice
agents agree norms were violated.
continued on next slide
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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e
Frank Schmalleger
Differential Opportunity Theory
• Crime and deviance are as normal as
any other form of behavior supported
by group socialization.
• Deviance is an effort to conform to
subcultural norms and expectations.
• Conventional behavior conforms to
norms of wider society.
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Frank Schmalleger
Types of Delinquent Subcultures
• Criminal subcultures
Criminal role models readily available
• Conflict subcultures
Status through violence
• Retreatist subcultures
Drug use and withdrawal from wider
society
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Frank Schmalleger
Types of Lower Class Youth
• Type I: Desire entry into middle class
by improving economic position
• Type II: Desire entry to middle class
but not improvement in economic
position
• Type III: Desire wealth without entry to
middle class
• Type IV: Dropouts who retreat from
mainstream via drug and alcohol use
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Frank Schmalleger
Reaction Formation
• Albert Cohen
Associated with both strain theory and
subcultural perspective
• Youth held accountable to norms of
wider society through "middle class
measuring rod" of expectations
• Not everyone is prepared to effectively
meet such expectations.
continued on next slide
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Frank Schmalleger
Reaction Formation
• Juveniles experience status frustration
when judged according to middle-class
standards they cannot achieve.
• Reaction formation
Process by which a person openly
rejects that which he wants, or aspires
to, but cannot obtain or achieve
Juveniles develop hostility toward
middle-class values.
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Frank Schmalleger
The Code of the Street
• Elijah Anderson
Contemporary street code stresses a
hyperinflated notion of manhood resting
on the idea of respect.
Street culture's violent nature means a
man cannot back down from threats.
• Decent vs. street families
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Frank Schmalleger
Gangs Today
• Modern gangs are involved in serious
and violent crimes.
• Gangs can be big business.
Traditional criminal activities
Drug dealing
• Distinctions between gangs and
violence
• Co-offending especially prevalent in the
lives of gang members
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Frank Schmalleger
Policy Implications of Social
Structure Theories
• Chicago Area Project (Clifford Shaw)
Tried to reduce social disorganization in
slum neighborhoods by creating
community committees
• Mobilization for Youth
Based on differential opportunity theory
Provided new opportunities, tried to
change fundamental arrangements of
society, address root causes of crime
continued on next slide
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Frank Schmalleger
Policy Implications of Social
Structure Theories
• War on Poverty
Kennedy and Johnson Administrations
Programs designed to reduce crime
rates by redistributing wealth in
American society
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Frank Schmalleger
Critique of Social Structure
Theories
• Some argue the inverse of the "root
causes" argument.
Suggest poverty and social injustices
are produced by crime
• If so, addressing poverty and social
inequity as the root causes of crime is
and ineffective crime prevention
strategy.
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Frank Schmalleger
Critique of Ecological Theories
• May give too much credence to the
notion that spatial location determines
crime
• Seems unable to differentiate between
social disorganization and the things it
is said to cause
• Many crimes occur outside of socially
disorganized areas.
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Frank Schmalleger
Critique of Strain Theories
• Original formulation less applicable to
modern society
• Delinquents do not report being more
distressed than other youth.
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Frank Schmalleger
Critique of Subcultural Theories
• Seen as lacking in explanatory power
• Seen as tautological (circular)
• Has been criticized or being racist
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Frank Schmalleger
Other Critiques of Social Structure
Theories
• Link low SES to high delinquency
Not supported by empirical studies
• Overemphasis on environments creates
bias against looking elsewhere for
possible causes.
• Cannot predict which individuals, or
which proportion of given population,
will turn to crime