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- 1. Criminology Today
An Integrated Introduction
CHAPTER
Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e
Frank Schmalleger
Copyright © 2017 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved
Criminal
Victimization
10
- 2. Copyright © 2017 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e
Frank Schmalleger
Hidden Victims
• Dark figure of crime
Unreported crimes not reflected in
official statistics
Some information available from self-
report surveys
• Undiscovered crimes
Crimes not known to victims
Many committed using technology
- 3. Copyright © 2017 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e
Frank Schmalleger
Victimization by the Numbers
• Sources of official U.S. crime statistics
National Crime Victimization Survey
(NCVS)
• Collected by Bureau of Justice Statistics
UCR/NIBRS program
• Run by the FBI
• Uniform Crime Reports (UCR)
• National Criminal Incident-Based
Reporting System (NIBRS)
- 4. Copyright © 2017 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e
Frank Schmalleger
The NCVS
• Main source of information on criminal
victimization
• Self-report data from victims on non-
fatal personal crimes and household
property crimes
• Includes data on reported and
unreported crimes
continued on next slide
- 5. Copyright © 2017 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e
Frank Schmalleger
The NCVS
• Data obtained from a nationally
representative sample of ~169,000
persons aged 12+ living in US
households
- 6. Copyright © 2017 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e
Frank Schmalleger
Critique of the NCVS
• Possible overreporting
• Definitions of crimes do not correspond
to federal or state statutes.
• Changes to NCVS categories make it
difficult to compare NCVS findings over
time.
- 7. Copyright © 2017 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e
Frank Schmalleger
The Uniform Crime Reporting
Program
• Run by the FBI since 1929
• Includes information on reported
crimes
• Collects information on 8 serious crimes
and arrest data on additional crimes
• Data comes from law enforcement
agencies.
- 8. Copyright © 2017 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e
Frank Schmalleger
Advantages of NIBRS
• Provides broad range of crime data
• Victimization data categorized by age
and type of crime
• Data on victim-offender relationships
• Information on timing of victimizations
continued on next slide
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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e
Frank Schmalleger
Advantages of NIBRS
• Data on victimizations involving
weapons
• Data on co-occurring victimization in a
given offense
• Statistics on case clearances
• A more complete picture of crime and
victimization
- 10. Copyright © 2017 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e
Frank Schmalleger
UCR Critique
• UCR/NIBRS program only includes
crimes that are reported by the police.
• Rape is the most underreported crime.
• Many other crimes are underreported
as well, including larceny.
- 11. Copyright © 2017 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e
Frank Schmalleger
Comparing the UCR and the NCVS
• Similarities
Measure same subset of serious crimes
Similar definitions of most crimes
• Differences
Program objectives differ
Measure non-identical sets of crimes
UCR provides property crime counts per
capita; NCVS counts crimes per
household.
- 12. Copyright © 2017 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e
Frank Schmalleger
Changing Offense Patterns
• Sharp decline in crime in early 1940s
• Dramatic increase in crime from 1960s
to 1990s
• Decrease in crime since mid-1990s
• Some evidence we may be on the cusp
of a new cycle of increased criminal
activity
- 13. Copyright © 2017 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e
Frank Schmalleger
Demographic Correlates of Crime
• Demographic characteristics are
significantly correlated with
victimization risk.
• "Typical" violent crime victim:
socioeconomically disadvantaged young
black male living in inner city region of
large metropolitan area
• Victimization risk varies by type of
crime.
- 14. Copyright © 2017 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e
Frank Schmalleger
Revictimization and
Polyvictimization
• Polyvictimization
Multiple instances of varied
victimizations
Polyvictimization has a more negative
impact than being the victim of one type
of chronic victimization.
• Revictimization
Continued victimization by the same
offender committing the same crime
- 15. Copyright © 2017 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e
Frank Schmalleger
The Developmental Victimization
Survey (DVS)
• National phone survey of 2,030 children
and youth aged 10–17 in 2002-2003
• Information on younger children (age
2–9) obtained from parents/caregivers
• Two follow-up surveys also conducted
continued on next slide
- 16. Copyright © 2017 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e
Frank Schmalleger
The Developmental Victimization
Survey (DVS)
• Conceptual model showing 4 pathways
leading to child polyvictimization
Living in a dangerous family
Having a family with problems (money,
employment, substance abuse, etc.)
Living in or moving into a dangerous
community
Being a child with preexisting emotional
problems that increase risky behavior
- 17. Copyright © 2017 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e
Frank Schmalleger
Psychological Impact of
Victimization
• Victims often experience socio-
emotional impacts of crime.
• Victims of serious violence especially
vulnerable
• Symptoms of stress can be physical as
well as emotional.
- 18. Copyright © 2017 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e
Frank Schmalleger
The Physical Impact of
Victimization
• Crime may result in direct physical
injury as well as other post-crime
physical reactions.
• Physical injuries range from minor to
deadly.
• Injuries can be life-threatening, result
in long-term disability or permanent
disfigurement.
• Not all physical injuries obvious
- 19. Copyright © 2017 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e
Frank Schmalleger
Economic Loss
• Includes immediate losses from
victimization as well as other costs
Medical/mental health costs
Repairs to property/possessions
Increased insurance premiums
Security system installation
• Participation in justice system can have
substantial personal costs as well.
continued on next slide
- 20. Copyright © 2017 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e
Frank Schmalleger
Economic Loss
• Costs due to relocating a residence
• Economic productivity at work may
suffer.
• Family of murder victim having to bear
funeral and burial expenses
• Financial burdens of victimization
especially difficult for economically
marginalized, young, disabled
- 21. Copyright © 2017 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e
Frank Schmalleger
Secondary Victimization
• Social injuries resulting from response
of social institutions and individuals to
the victim
• Occurs as result of initial/primary
victimization
• May involve justice system officials,
members of the public, media
continued on next slide
- 22. Copyright © 2017 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e
Frank Schmalleger
Secondary Victimization
• Not the same as "secondary victim"
Person who suffers unintended
consequences when others are
victimized
- 23. Copyright © 2017 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e
Frank Schmalleger
Victimization as a Risk Factor for
Crime
• Research shows women's victimization
can significantly contribute to future
criminal involvement.
• Victimization can lead to criminality
through direct and indirect ways.
- 24. Copyright © 2017 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e
Frank Schmalleger
Victimology
• Victimology
A subfield of criminology
The scientific study of all aspects of
criminal victimization
Includes the process of victimization,
the criminal, the victim, the justice
system, society
continued on next slide
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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e
Frank Schmalleger
Victimology
• Victimologists study vulnerable groups
to understand the victimization
process.
- 26. Copyright © 2017 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e
Frank Schmalleger
Blaming the Victim
• Victimogenesis
The origin/cause of victimization
• Early victimologists classified the
degree to which victims contributed to
their own victimization.
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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e
Frank Schmalleger
Victim Precipitation
• Contribution made by the victim to the
criminal event
• Main types
Passive
• Victim unknowingly encourages the
offender.
Active
• Victim literally provokes the
victimization.
continued on next slide
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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e
Frank Schmalleger
Victim Precipitation
• Ways in which victims contribute to
their own victimization
Victim facilitation
• Fail to take simple precautions against
victimization
Victim provocation
• Victim as initial aggressor
Victim initiation
• Victim attracts offender's attention.
- 29. Copyright © 2017 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e
Frank Schmalleger
Victim Precipitation Research
• Marvin Wolfgang
Found 26% of homicides result of active
victim precipitation
• Beniamin Mendelsohn
Six-part typology based on degree of
victim culpability
continued on next slide
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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e
Frank Schmalleger
Victim Precipitation Research
• Hans von Hentig
13-category taxonomy identifying
psychological, social, biological factors
correlated with victimization risk
• Stephen Schafer
"Functional responsibility"
7-category typology based on degree of
provocation
continued on next slide
- 31. Copyright © 2017 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e
Frank Schmalleger
Victim Precipitation Research
• Menachim Amir
19% of forcible rapes involving female
victims were victim precipitated
- 32. Copyright © 2017 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e
Frank Schmalleger
Victimization and Lifestyle
• Victimology theories of 1970s shifted
focus to people's choices that affect
availability to offenders, make them
easier targets.
• Key approaches
Lifestyle theory
Routine activities approach
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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e
Frank Schmalleger
Lifestyle Theory
• Lifestyle
Style of life, the way a person lives
Some lifestyles favor victimization
because they offer more opportunities
• Demographic variables determine
victimization risk through their effect
on lifestyle.
• Some populations are at heightened
risk due to their status (e.g., elderly).
- 34. Copyright © 2017 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e
Frank Schmalleger
Routine Activities Theory
• Examines interaction of motivated
offenders, suitable targets, and capable
guardians
• Individual's everyday actions contribute
to likelihood of victimization.
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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e
Frank Schmalleger
The Situational Model
• Situational insights combine to elicit a
criminal response from individual
actors.
• Crime may result from temptation, bad
company, idleness, provocation.
continued on next slide
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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e
Frank Schmalleger
The Situational Model
• Model defines what constitutes an
opportunity for crime.
• Can prevent crime by changing
potential victim's routines or hardening
targets
- 37. Copyright © 2017 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e
Frank Schmalleger
Deviant Places Theory
• Spatially oriented theory
• Victimization most frequent in socially
disorganized high-crime areas
• People become victims as a result of
exposure to these areas.
• Focus is on geographically-determined
risk of coming into contact with an
offender, regardless of lifestyle,
behavior, personal characteristics
continued on next slide
- 38. Copyright © 2017 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e
Frank Schmalleger
Deviant Places Theory
• Certain neighborhood conditions
produce stigmatized neighborhoods
with bad reputations.
• Stigmatized neighborhoods increase
risk of victimization for those living or
visiting but most residents do not
become criminal.
continued on next slide
- 39. Copyright © 2017 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e
Frank Schmalleger
Deviant Places Theory
• Theory depends on ecological features
of location, not on characteristics of
residents.
- 40. Copyright © 2017 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e
Frank Schmalleger
A History of the Victim
• Victims rarely had a role in the justice
system other than testifying at trial.
• Needs/problems largely ignored
• 1982 President's Task Force on Victims
of Crime gave focus to victims' rights
movement
continued on next slide
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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e
Frank Schmalleger
A History of the Victim
• Movement to add victims' rights
amendments to constitutions
No federal constitutional amendment
but 30+ states have amendments
- 42. Copyright © 2017 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e
Frank Schmalleger
Victims' Rights Legislation
• 1982 Victim and Witness Protection Act
Judges must consider victim impact
statements at federal sentencing
hearings.
• 1984 Victims of Crime Act (VOCA)
Established federal Crime Victims Fund
to help states develop victims'
assistance and compensation programs
continued on next slide
- 43. Copyright © 2017 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e
Frank Schmalleger
Victims' Rights Legislation
• 1994 Violent Crime Control and Law
Enforcement Act
Federal right of allocution
Federal ex offenders and child molesters
must pay restitution.
Rape shield law protections extended to
civil and criminal cases
continued on next slide
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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e
Frank Schmalleger
Victims' Rights Legislation
• 1994 Violence against Women Act
Addressed concerns about violence
against women (sexual violence,
domestic abuse)
• 2001 USA PATRIOT Act amended VOCA
to make victims of terrorism eligible for
victims' compensation.
continued on next slide
- 45. Copyright © 2017 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e
Frank Schmalleger
Victims' Rights Legislation
• 2004 Crime Victims' Rights Act
Established statutory rights for victims
of federal crimes
- 46. Copyright © 2017 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e
Frank Schmalleger
Restorative Justice (RJ)
• Philosophical basis of victims'
movement
• Emphasizes offender accountability and
victim reparation
continued on next slide
- 47. Copyright © 2017 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e
Frank Schmalleger
Restorative Justice (RJ)
• Community safety dimension
recognizes that the justice system has
responsibility to protect public.
• Accountability element defines criminal
conduct in terms of offender obligation.
- 48. Copyright © 2017 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e
Frank Schmalleger
Victim Restitution
• Sentencing options seeking to restore
victim frequently focus on restitution
payments by offenders
• All states have passed laws providing
for monetary payments to victims.
• Programs generally have eligibility
requirements and limit maximum
amount of compensation that can be
received.