This document is a chapter from a book that provides an introduction to conducting fieldwork research in Japan. The chapter defines culture and discusses its key characteristics. It explains that culture consists of shared understandings among a group about how to behave and find meaning. The chapter then explores five dimensions of culture: communities, individuals, cultural products, cultural practices, and cultural perspectives. It provides examples to illustrate each dimension and how exploring these dimensions can help analyze a particular culture.

1. Fieldwork
Research
Methods
for
Japan:
A
Beginner’s
Guide
Robert
Croker
Nanzan
University
Research
Methods
Press

2. 2
Table
of
Contents
Part
I:
Beginnings
–
Lighting
the
Lanterns
Chapter
1:
What
is
culture?
Chapter
2:
How
can
you
study
a
culture?
Part
II:
Planning
–
The
Practicalities
Chapter
3:
Creating
your
fieldwork
project
plan
Chapter
4:
Your
participants:
The
people
in
your
project
Chapter
5:
Managing
your
research:
Staying
organized
Part
III:
Gathering
and
Analyzing
Your
Data
–
The
Day
of
the
Festival
Chapter
6:
Observing
Japan:
Looking,
listening,
participating
Chapter
7:
Reading:
Primary
and
secondary
sources
Chapter
8:
Asking:
Informal
and
formal
interviewing
Chapter
9:
Asking:
Questionnaires
Part
IV:
By
the
Light
of
the
Lantern
–
Stories
at
the
Izakaya
Chapter
10:
Presenting
fieldwork
results
effectively
Part
V:
At
the
Back
of
the
Store
–
Extra
Resources
Appendix
A:
Example
fieldwork
topics
Appendix
B:
Sample
reports
Glossary
List
of
references
Index
©
Robert
Croker,
2014
Fieldwork
Research
Methods
for
Japan:
A
Beginner’s
Guide
Research
Methods
Press,
Nagoya,
Japan
Photos:
Robert
Croker,
Guillaume
Catella

3. 3
Part
I
Beginnings:
Lighting
the
Lanterns

4. 4
Chapter
1
What
is
culture?
Introduction
Fieldwork
seeks
to
understand
how
people
live
their
lives,
and
people
live
their
lives
within
culture.
“The
concept
of
culture
helps
the
ethnographer
search
for
a
logical,
cohesive
pattern
in
the
myriad,
often
ritualistic
behaviors
and
ideas
that
characterize
a
group”
(Fetterman,
2010,
p.
16).
In
this
chapter,
we
explore
what
culture
is,
what
it
is
not,
and
then
explore
five
dimensions
of
culture:
communities,
individuals,
products,
practices,
and
perspectives.
What
is
culture?
Discussion
question:
How
would
you
define
the
term
‘culture’?
Definition:
“Culture
is
the
learned,
shared
understandings
among
a
group
of
people
about
how
to
behave
and
what
everything
means”
(Omohundro,
2008,
p.
27).

5. 5
Let’s
stop
and
consider
each
term
in
this
definition:
learned:
culture
is
not
instinctual.
People
teach
each
other,
imitate
each
other,
correct
each
other,
and
so
come
to
share
a
culture.
shared:
culture
is
not
just
what
one
person
does,
but
what
a
group
of
people
does.
understandings:
culture
is
in
people’s
minds,
and
includes
both
explicit
knowledge
and
implicit
knowledge.
a
group
of
people:
can
be
small
(a
family)
or
large
(a
nation).
how
to
behave:
culture
guides
our
actions,
sometimes
as
rules
and
knowledge
that
you’re
conscious
of,
and
sometimes
as
habits
that
you’ve
picked
up
unconsciously
by
imitating
those
around
you.
what
everything
means:
about
what
is
good
or
right
to
do
and
to
be,
as
well
as
what
is
bad
and
wrong
–
which
shapes
how
people
behave.
Moreover,
cultural
anthropology
distinguishes
between
‘culture’
–
something
that
all
humans
have
by
virtue
of
being
members
of
social
groups,
and
‘a
culture’
–
the
particular
shared
understandings
of
a
certain
social
group
(Omohundro,
2008,
p.29).
In
this
fieldwork
class,
each
of
you
will
focus
on
exploring
one
culture
–
one
social
group
living
in
Japan.
What
cultures
are:
a)
Cultures
are
integrated
–
culture
can
be
seen
as
an
integrated
system,
or
a
set
of
mutually
influential
relationships
among
its
parts.
Each
part
of
culture
is
related
to
another
part.
b)
Cultures
are
products
of
history
–
cultures
are
reproduced
each
generation;
each
generation
decides
what
to
keep
and
what
to
throw
away,
re-­‐interprets
history
in
its
own
ways,
and
faces
particular
challenges
and
often
critical
experiences
unique
to
that
era.
c)
Cultures
change
–
and
can
change
rapidly.
Change
can
spring
from
developments
in
technology
or
the
environment
(material
change]
or
from
the
development
of
new
ideas
and
perspectives
(ideational
change).
Change
can
also
be
driven
by
internal
developments
or
external
developments,
and
often
both
operating
together.
d)
Cultures
are
strengthened
by
values
–
values
are
shared
understandings
of
what
is
good
or
right
to
do
and
to
be,
as
well
as
what
is
bad
and
wrong.
Values
compel
people
to
do
‘the
right
thing’,
culturally
speaking.
e)
Cultures
are
powerful
determinants
of
behavior
–
the
presence
of
values
helps
explain
why
people
usually
behave
‘appropriately’,
even
if
they
know
they
don’t
have
to.
Much
of
what
we
have
learned
is
beneath
our
awareness
or
has
become
a
comfortable
habit,
or
is
surrounded
by
values.
However,
all
of
us
break
some
rules
sometimes;
each
person
is
individual
in
some
way.
In
fact,
none
of
us
even
knows
all
of
the
rules.

6. 6
f)
Cultures
are
largely
composed
of
and
transmitted
by
symbols
–
a
symbol
is
anything
to
which
its
users
assign
meaning,
such
as
a
word
or
gesture
(a
linguistic
symbol)
or
a
Christian
cross
(a
material
symbol).
Meaning
is
given
by
the
culture
and
may
be
quite
arbitrary
–
the
word,
gesture
or
object
may
have
no
obvious
relationship
to
its
given
meaning.
Symbols
are
what
give
a
culture
the
ability
to
communicate,
to
transfer
meaning,
and
to
endure
across
generations,
as
children
first
learn
the
symbols
of
the
culture
and
then
through
those
symbols
the
cultural
values
and
behavior.
g)
Cultures
are
constructed
–
groups
construct
or
create
their
understandings
by
selecting
this,
ignoring
that,
and
making
up
another
thing
–
the
shared
understandings
of
a
group
are
not
necessarily
dictated
by
reality.
Although
there
are
plenty
of
reality
checks,
a
culture’s
ideas
sometimes
have
a
life
of
their
own,
and
they
define
reality
for
its
members.
h)
Cultural
practices
are
diverse
–
individuals
participate
in
a
combination
of
subcultures,
regional
cultures,
national
culture(s),
and
even
international
cultures,
so
“We
are
all
multicultural”
(John
Caughey,
2002,
p.
174)
–
each
of
us
has
learned
several
cultures,
which
overlap
and
even
compete
or
contradict
one
another
in
our
lives
(Omohundro,
2008,
p.42).
Source:
adapted
from
Omohundro
(2008,
pp.
36-­‐40,
p.
42)
What
culture
is
not:
a)
Culture
is
not
the
same
as
society
–
a
society
is
a
group
of
people
who
interact,
to
create,
share,
and
perpetuate
a
culture.
b)
Culture
is
not
just
food
customs,
musical
traditions,
and
colorful
costumes
–
they
are
only
small
parts
of
the
whole.
Culture
also
includes
much
that
occurs
during
people’s
ordinary
day
–
and
it
is
this
everyday
lived
reality
that
is
often
what
fieldwork
focuses
upon.
c)
Culture
is
not
behavior
–
although
it
guides
behavior
in
informing
people
what
to
do
and
why
to
do
it.
d)
Culture
is
not
an
explanation
for
everything
that
people
do
–
people
can
act
with,
around,
or
against
culture.
Also,
anthropology
does
not
claim
that
culture
offers
a
complete
explanation
of
human
behaviour,
just
that
“there
is
a
cultural
element
in
most
human
behavior
and
that
certain
things
in
behavior
make
the
most
sense
when
seen
through
culture”
(Kroeber
&
Kluckhohn
1963,
p.
369,
cited
in
Omohundro,
2008,
p.
44).
That
is,
culture
is
a
valuable
but
still
partial
explanation
of
what
people
do.
e)
Culture
is
not
explanation
for
everything
that
people
think
–
two
people
might
share
a
fair
bit
of
culture,
but
could
also
disagree
on
many
things.
Some
ideas
and
practices
are
completely
taken
for
granted,
some
are
popular
but
not
universal,
some
are
often
disputed,
and
a
few
are
highly
controversial.
What
culture
actually
does
is
to
define
the
debates
and
provide
a
language
for
their
disagreement.
Source:
adapted
from
Omohundro
(2008,
pp.
43-­‐5).

7. 7
Exploring
a
particular
culture:
Five
dimensions
How
can
you
explore
a
particular
culture?
One
way
is
to
conceive
of
culture
as
being
comprised
of
five
interrelated
elements.
Communities,
made
up
of
individual
people,
use
and
construct
cultural
products
while
engaged
in
existing
and
emerging
cultural
practices.
These
new
practices
and
products
develop
form
and
contribute
to
the
development
of
cultural
perspectives
(Moran,
2001).
Let’s
stop
and
consider
each
of
these
elements
in
turn:
communities:
communities
are
groups
of
people,
and
these
communities
are
always
changing.
Communities
can
range
in
size
from
small,
private
groups
such
as
families
and
friendship
groups
through
to
larger,
more
official
institutional
groups
such
as
schools,
companies
and
religious
organizations
through
to
geographically
defined
groups
such
as
the
people
who
live
in
a
particular
village,
town,
city
or
prefecture.
Communities
are
not
isolated,
but
co-­‐exist
with
other
communities.
Different
communities
are
in
different
relationships
with
one
another
–
cooperation,
collaboration,
conflict
–
and
these
relationships
are
dynamic
and
change
over
time.
individual
people:
communities
are
made
up
of
individual
people.
The
people
in
a
particular
community
are
similar
in
some
ways
and
unique
in
others
–
each
person
is
a
distinct
mix
of
individual
experiences
on
the
one
hand
and
yet
belong
to
a
number
of
different
communities
on
the
other.
Individuals
may
differ
in
terms
of
their
age
and
gender,
socio-­‐economic
status,
levels
of
education,
attitudes,
opinions
and
beliefs,
aspirations,
and
life
experiences.
Culture
resides
both
in
the
individual
members
and
also
in
the
various
social
groups
or
communities
that
people
form.
That
is,
culture
is
both
individual
and
collective
–
it
is
both
psychological
and
social.
products:
People
use
and
construct
cultural
products,
the
tangible
and
intangible
creations
of
a
particular
culture.
Tangible
products
include
objects
such
as
festival
clothes,
lanterns,
fans
and
banners,
o-­‐mikoshi,
and
musical
instruments;
these
are
often
referred
to
as
artifacts
or
material
culture.
Intangible
products
cannot
be
seen
and
touched
directly;
they
include
such
things
as
festival
music,
dancing,
and
songs.
Both
tangible
and
intangible
products
use
symbols
to
represent
particular
meanings.
practices:
Cultural
practices
refer
to
the
actions
and
interactions
that
members
of
a
culture
carry
out,
individually
or
with
others.
They
represent
knowledge
of
what
to
do,
when
and
where.
Cultural
practices
are
a
mix
of
existing
and
emerging
ways
of
doing
–
some
practices
change
over
time,
but
some
do
not.
Some
practices
are
considered
appropriate,
and
some
are
considered
inappropriate
(including
taboos).
Knowing
how
to
behave
appropriately
marks
membership
of
a
particular
community.
perspectives:
Perspectives
are
a
culture’s
ways
of
understanding
the
world.
They
include
a
culture’s
perceptions,
values
and
beliefs,
and
attitudes.
They
underpin
a
culture’s
use
of
cultural
products
and
shape
and
give
meaning
to
cultural
practices.
Perspectives
can
be
explicit,
but
they
are
often
implicit,
even
outside
of
conscious
awareness.
Perspectives
provide
meaning
for
people’s
lives,
and
constitute
a
unique
outlook
or
orientation
toward
life
–
a
unique
worldview.
New
practices
and
products
develop
from
and
contribute
to
the
development
of
cultural
perspectives.
Perspectives
are
invisible
–
they
cannot
be
seen
directly
–
but
you
can
explore
them
through
interviews
and
by
examining
the
products
and
practices
of
a
culture.

8. FIVE DIMENSIONS OF CULTURE
PRODUCTS PRACTICES
CULTURE
PEOPLE
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
INVISIBLE
PERSPECTIVES
VISIBLE
COMMUNITIES
Figure
1:
The
five
dimensions
of
a
culture
(source:
adapted
from
Moran,
2001)
8
Case
study
–
the
five
dimensions:
My
volleyball
team
About
me:
I’m
a
third-­‐year
Japanese
female
student
at
an
international
high
school
in
Japan.
I
spent
eight
years
living
in
Canada,
from
when
I
was
6
to
when
I
was
14.
When
I
came
back
to
Japan
I
entered
this
school,
and
I
love
being
here.
It’s
become
my
home;
outside,
I
often
feel
as
though
I’m
a
bit
of
an
outsider
because
I’ve
spent
so
much
time
overseas.
I
often
feel
more
Canadian
than
Japanese.
Community:
I
belong
to
the
school
volleyball
team,
which
consists
of
both
junior
and
senior
high
school
students,
and
has
about
30
members.
The
team
is
only
for
girls,
and
we
also
have
a
teacher
who
supervises
us,
Suzuki
Sensei.
I
joined
this
team
about
three
years
ago,
because
a
friend
of
mine
invited
me
to
join
with
her.
To
be
a
member
of
the
group
you
should
be
interested
in
playing
volleyball.
Before
I
joined
the
team,
I
first
went
to
watch
them
practicing,
to
see
what
people
were
doing.
Then,
because
it
looked
fun
and
interesting,
I
decided
to
sign
up.
The
age
of
the
team
members
ranges
from
12
to
18.
We
help
each
other
to
create
a
nice
team.
Because
of
the
age
differences,
there
are
also
differences
in
each
person’s
ability.
Some

9. members
have
been
practicing
volleyball
for
many
years,
but
some
of
the
members
have
only
been
practicing
for
two
months.
As
I’m
in
the
final
year
of
high
school
I’m
in
the
oldest
age
group.
I
really
enjoy
watching
people
improve
their
skills
day
by
day.
The
ones
who
improve
the
most
come
to
the
extra
morning
practice
sessions
and
listen
to
other
people’s
advice
about
how
they
can
improve
their
skills.
People:
In
my
volleyball
team,
the
higher-­‐year
groups
have
more
power
than
the
lower-­‐year
groups.
Since
I’m
in
the
highest
year,
I’m
responsible
for
teaching
newcomers.
I
can
also
ask
people
to
do
something
for
the
team,
such
as
prepare
drinks.
Although
I’m
in
the
highest
year,
there
is
one
person
who
is
more
central
and
important
than
me
–
the
team
captain
who
runs
the
team.
9
My
volleyball
team
is
relatively
friendly,
and
is
not
as
strict
or
harsh
as
other,
more
powerful
high
school
teams.
Also,
I
feel
that
our
team
members
each
have
their
own
individual
volleyball
style.
Some
of
the
members
played
volleyball
at
their
schools
overseas,
so
sometimes
they
have
their
own
way
of
playing.
Products:
Of
course,
the
key
products
that
we
use
are
the
volleyball
and
the
volleyball
net.
These
are
the
shared
products.
We
also
bring
our
own
individual
products
–
our
volleyball
shoes,
for
example,
and
also
our
volleyball
kit
and
sports
bag.
We
do
not
have
a
team
uniform.
The
key
space
is
the
school
gym
where
the
volleyball
courts
are.
However,
sometimes
we
also
use
the
school
gym
to
do
muscle
and
fitness
training.
We
do
not
have
a
team
symbol,
such
as
a
special
name,
bird
or
animal,
or
letter,
probably
because
we
do
not
have
a
team
uniform
and
we
are
still
a
relatively
new
team.
I
wish
that
we
did
have
one.
Practices:
Our
key
practice
is
to
play
volleyball.
As
a
team,
we
try
to
improve
our
skills
and
to
get
better.
However,
we
don’t
only
play
volleyball
–
we
also
talk
and
chat
before
and
after
club.
We
have
some
important
rituals
that
we
follow
for
each
practice.
We
start
practice
by
bowing
to
the
volleyball
court.
Then,
we
run
around
the
court
three
times.
After
that,
we
stretch
our
bodies
for
a
bit
until
we
feel
ready
to
start
practicing.
First,
we
practice
passing
the
ball
to
each
other,
and
then
we
practice
serving.
After
that,
we
practice
together
in
teams
of
six
to
develop
our
teamwork.
We
usually
practice
in
the
same
teams
of
six
each
time.
We
use
special
language
when
we
are
playing
–
like
serve,
spike,
net,
and
so
on.
We
also
have
court
names
–
names
that
we
use
for
a
person
only
when
she
is
on
the
court.
And
of
course,
the
kohai
have
to
use
honorific
language
when
they
speak
to
their
sempai.
The
biggest
taboo
of
our
club
is
to
miss
practice.
We
have
practice
every
day,
and
everyone
is
expected
to
come
to
practice.
The
next
biggest
taboo
is
for
kohai
to
use
honorific
language
incorrectly
when
they
speak
to
their
sempai,
even
though
we
all
have
lived
overseas
for
much
of
our
lives,
and
usually
speak
in
English
in
class.
I
guess
that
we
have
adopted
a
really
Japanese
way
of
thinking
for
our
team.
Perspectives:
The
main
focus
of
our
team
is
always
to
improve
our
volleyball
skills
and
techniques.
However,
I
guess
the
biggest
issue
is
the
attitude
and
behavior
of
the
kohai.
To
be
honest,
now
that
I
am
in
the
highest
year,
I
often
feel
that
the
younger
members
are
slackening
off
a
bit
too
much.
Sometimes
they
are
too
lazy
to
do
something
for
the
team,
such
as
clean
the
court
at
the
end
of
practice
or
to
serve
drinks
during
the
breaks,
so
we
often
have
to
remind
them.
In
addition,
some
of
the
newcomers
are
not
trying
to
improve
their
skills,
so
we
struggle
to
teach
them.
To
improve
our
team,
we
need
to
practice
harder
and
to
unite
even
tighter
within
the

10. 10
team.
We
often
try
to
explain
this
to
the
kohai
in
our
reflection
sessions
after
practice
each
day,
but
they
don’t
seem
to
listen
sometimes.
Their
relationships
with
students
in
the
same
year
might
be
more
important
–
but
I
was
the
same
when
I
just
joined
the
team,
so
I
understand
how
they
feel.
For
us,
whether
someone
gets
good
class
grades
or
not
is
not
important.
I
think
the
group’s
values
are
that
we
are
a
team
and
that
we
should
all
try
hard
together
to
make
our
volleyball
team
better,
supporting
our
teammates
and
helping
each
other.
We
should
do
that
in
our
behavior
(what
we
do),
our
language
(what
we
say),
and
our
attitude
(how
we
feel).
To
sum
up:
always
think
of
your
teammates
first,
and
then
yourself
second.
I
prefer
team
members
who
might
not
be
so
good
at
volleyball
but
who
have
a
really
positive
attitude
to
team
members
who
are
good
at
volleyball
but
who
don’t
really
support
others.
We
are
not
playing
volleyball
to
beat
each
other
(or
even
other
teams)
but
for
each
person
to
get
better
and
to
support
her
teammates
to
improve
as
well.
My
perspective
about
my
team
has
changed
over
time.
When
I
first
joined
the
team
I
just
wanted
to
learn
the
basics
of
volleyball
and
make
some
new
friends.
Now,
as
I
am
a
senior,
I
really
want
the
team
to
run
smoothly,
and
for
team
members
to
learn
to
help
each
other
to
improve
their
game.
I
guess
that
it’s
natural
to
feel
this
way
as
I
get
older
and
begin
to
feel
a
sense
of
responsibility
towards
the
team.
However,
I
think
the
sempai-­‐kohai
system
is
also
really
important
to
help
the
team
run,
both
day
to
day
and
also
in
the
future.
Discussion
questions:
Similar
to
these
case
studies,
let’s
explore
each
of
these
elements
of
culture,
thinking
about
your
own
culture.
First,
let’s
talk
briefly
about
the
different
types
of
groups
that
we
belong
to.
Then,
let’s
choose
one
of
those
groups
and
talk
about
it
in
more
depth,
exploring
the
people
(who),
products
(what),
practices
(how),
and
perspectives
(why)
of
that
group.
Communities:
Which
groups
do
you
belong
to?
Think
of
your
school,
your
school
club
or
circle,
your
religious
group
or
church,
your
family,
your
friendship
group(s),
and
other
groups
that
you
can
think
of.
Of
these
groups,
which
groups
were
you
born
into,
and
which
have
you
(or
your
family)
chosen
to
join?
Choose
one
group
which
you
belong
to
(the
rest
of
the
discussion
is
about
this
group):
a)
Give
a
brief
introduction
and
history
of
that
group.
b)
Who
are
members
of
that
group?
Are
there
core
members
and
peripheral
members?
Who
are
they,
and
how
are
they
different?
c)
What
are
the
core
members’
identifying
features?
For
example,
what
is
their
age,
gender,
ethnicity
and
first
language(s),
socio-­‐economic
background,
looks
and
fashion,
abilities,
attitudes,
language
use,
and
so
on?
d)
How
do
you
become
a
member
of
that
group?
How
can
you
leave
that
group?
People:
a)
Within
that
group,
who
are
you?
Which
role(s)
do
you
play?
How
have
those
roles
changed
over
time?
b)
Do
you
feel
as
though
you
are
a
‘core
member’
of
that
group?
Why
is
that?

11. c)
What
is
a
‘successful’
member
of
that
group?
Why
do
you
think
so?
Do
these
successful
members
behave
differently
to
other
members?
How?
d)
Introduce
one
other
person
from
that
group.
e)
Draw
a
relationship
map
of
the
people
in
that
group.
Explain
it
to
your
partner,
describing
the
different
roles
that
people
play,
and
how
those
roles
have
changed
over
time.
11
Products:
a)
What
are
some
of
the
tangible
products
(or
artifacts)
that
the
group
uses
when
it
is
together,
that
have
a
particular
meaning
for
the
group?
How
have
they
changed
over
time?
b)
Who
decides
which
products
to
use,
and
how
to
use
them?
c)
What
are
some
of
the
key
physical
settings
–
the
places
where
your
group
meets?
How
are
they
decided?
How
have
they
changed
over
time?
d)
Let’s
focus
specifically
on
symbols.
Does
your
group
use
any
particular
symbols
to
represent
meanings?
What
are
the
symbols,
and
what
do
they
mean?
Who
chose
(or
chooses)
these
symbols?
Practices:
a)
What
are
some
of
the
key
practices
of
the
group
–
the
things
that
members
of
your
group
usually
do
when
they
are
together?
How
is
this
decided?
How
does
this
change
over
time?
b)
Are
there
any
practices
that
you
consider
to
be
a
ritual
–
an
event
that
has
particular
meaning
beyond
just
doing
it?
c)
What
are
some
of
the
things
that
the
people
in
your
group
say
to
each
other
regularly
that
might
mark
membership
of
that
group?
How
is
this
decided?
How
does
this
change
over
time?
d)
What
are
the
taboos
in
your
group?
What
happens
when
someone
breaks
them?
Perspectives:
a)
Culture
helps
shape
which
issues
are
important
to
a
group,
and
how
group
members
think,
feel,
and
talk
about
them.
At
the
moment,
what
are
one
or
two
issues
that
are
very
important
to
your
group?
How
do
the
people
in
your
group
think,
feel
and
talk
about
them?
b)
Underlying
these
issues,
what
do
you
think
are
the
group’s
values?
That
is,
what
do
people
think
is
important
and
unimportant?
Good
and
bad?
c)
Perspectives,
like
the
dimensions
of
culture,
change
over
time.
How
have
the
perspectives
that
you
group
hold
changed
over
time?
What
has
helped
people
to
construct
and
reconstruct
these
perspectives?

12. 12
Discussion
question:
What
would
you
like
to
do
your
fieldwork
project
about?
Why
is
that?
What
do
you
expect
to
discover?
Fieldwork
preparation:
On
your
fieldwork
topic,
what
do
you
know
about
its
communities,
people,
products,
practices
and
perspectives?
Your
topic:
I
want
to
know
…
Communities:
People:
Products:
Practices:
Perspectives:

13. 13
Cultural
theories
Many
theories
have
been
created
to
explain
culture:
here
are
three
important
ones
–
functionalism,
conflict
theory,
and
ethnomethodology.
Functionalism:
Functionalism
sees
societies
as
being
basically
stable.
Society
is
divided
into
groups,
and
each
group
plays
a
different
role
or
‘function’
to
maintain
social
stability.
For
example,
schools
teach
children
learning
and
social
skills,
universities
further
human
knowledge
and
understanding,
the
police
and
the
court
system
make
society
safe,
and
markets
act
smoothly
to
provide
the
goods
and
services
a
modern
society
needs.
Shared
values
are
the
basis
for
a
society.
Societies
usually
change
very
slowly
through
‘evolution.’
Conflict
Theory:
Conflict
theory
is
diametrically
opposed
to
functionalism
–
it
argues
that
functionalism
is
naïve
and
serves
the
interests
of
groups
that
already
have
power.
Rather,
societies
are
not
stable;
they
are
always
changing.
The
basis
of
society
is
not
shared
values
but
the
competition
for
power.
It
is
always
scarce,
unequal,
and
coercive.
Groups
form
in
society
to
represent
and
help
their
members.
To
succeed,
groups
need
power,
so
one
purpose
of
groups
is
to
get
and
maintain
power.
Power
and
resources
are
limited,
so
groups
are
always
competing
or
‘conflicting’
with
other
groups
to
obtain
as
much
power
as
possible.
Ethnomethodology:
Functionalism
and
conflict
theory
focus
on
the
macro-­‐level
of
society;
ethnomethodology
works
at
the
micro-­‐level
of
society,
seeking
to
understand
how
groups
are
created
and
maintained
through
their
use
of
symbols,
rituals,
and
rules.
It
researches
how
groups
influence
its
members’
identity,
behavior
and
ideas
by
observing
and
interviewing
people,
recording
conversations
and
interactions,
and
reading
and
analyzing
documents.
Fieldwork
draws
upon
all
three
main
theories:
functionalism
and
conflict
theory
frame
fieldwork
in
terms
of
broader
cultural
influences
and
explain
why
cultures
and
communities
behave
and
believe
as
they
do
(the
‘why’
of
fieldwork),
whereas
ethnomethodology
informs
actual
fieldwork
practices
(the
‘how’
of
fieldwork).
In
both
cases,
theory
is
a
guide
to
practice.

14. 14
Chapter
2
How
can
you
study
a
culture?
Pre-­‐reading
discussion
questions:
1.
How
can
you
study
a
culture?
2.
How
do
you
think
you
will
do
your
fieldwork
project
on
Japanese
culture
–
what
is
your
topic,
what
context
will
you
examine,
who
will
your
participants
be,
what
data
will
you
gather,
and
how
will
you
gather
them?
Introduction
This
chapter
will
explain
the
basic
processes
of
how
to
do
your
fieldwork
project.
Let’s
begin
by
briefly
exploring
the
process
of
doing
fieldwork,
looking
at
some
examples
of
fieldwork
done
by
your
sempai.
These
might
give
you
some
ideas
of
what
you
could
do
your
fieldwork
project
about,
and
illustrate
how
you
could
do
it.
Then,
let’s
consider
the
broader
question
of
how
you
can
explore
a
culture.
In
particular,
let’s
look
at
the
cycle
of
fieldwork
–
the
steps
that
you
take
to
do
your
fieldwork
project.
Underlying
the
process
of
doing
fieldwork
is
a
way
of
thinking
about
the
research;
let’s
look
at
eight
ways
of
thinking
that
your
mental
toolkit
should
contain.
Finally,
let’s
turn
our
attention
to
theories
used
to
inform
the
study
of
culture.

15. 15
The
process
of
doing
fieldwork
Field
research
is
the
systematic
study
of
people’s
ordinary
activities
and
events
in
the
settings
in
which
they
occur
–
in
the
field
(Bailey,
1996).
A
primary
goal
of
field
research
is
to
understand
what
these
activities
and
events
mean
to
the
people
who
engage
in
them
–
how
they
live,
how
they
talk,
how
they
behave,
and
what
captivates
and
distresses
them
(Emerson
1988,
cited
in
Bailey,
1996).
To
gain
this
understanding,
field
researchers
collect
data
by
interacting
with
and
observing
people
during
the
course
of
their
daily
lives.
Because
the
field
researcher
interacts
with
people
on
their
turf,
these
people
do
not
deviate
as
much
from
their
usual
routines
as
they
would
as
if
they
were
participating
in
an
experiment
–
or
coming
to
the
researchers
office
to
participate
in
an
interview.
So,
the
field
researcher
does
not
try
to
control
the
setting
but
rather
attempts
to
become
part
of
it,
by
becoming
involved
with
the
people
being
studied
and
personally
experiencing
daily
life
in
the
field
(Neuman
1991,
cited
in
Bailey,
1996).
The
first
step
in
a
fieldwork
project
is
to
choose
a
topic
that
interests
you.
That
topic
could
be
what
made
you
interested
in
Japan
in
the
first
place,
such
as
Japanese
traditional
festivals
(in
my
case),
Japanese
popular
culture
such
as
J-­‐pop
or
anime,
Japanese
martial
arts
such
as
kendo,
or
Japanese
food
culture.
Alternatively,
your
topic
could
be
one
that
came
to
you
through
reading
about
contemporary
Japanese
culture
and
society,
such
as
child-­‐rearing
or
educational
practices,
university
student
political
activism,
or
the
performance
of
gender.
On
the
other
hand,
some
students
are
interested
in
exploring
aspects
of
Japan
that
are
closer
to
heart,
such
as
the
experience
of
growing
up
deaf,
or
being
a
Christian,
or
being
gay
or
lesbian.
Still
other
topics
arise
from
staying
in
a
homestay,
such
as
the
roles
mothers
play
in
a
Japanese
family,
or
how
public
and
private
spaces
are
defined
and
defended
in
a
Japanese
home.
When
you
choose
your
topic,
the
important
thing
is
that
it
fascinates
you,
and
that
you
really
want
to
learn
as
much
as
you
can
about
it
while
you
are
in
Japan.
The
second
step
in
a
fieldwork
project
is
to
narrow
your
topic
down,
as
you
only
have
three
months
to
finish
it
whilst
also
doing
your
Japanese
language
classes
at
the
same
time.
To
make
sure
that
your
fieldwork
project
is
doable
and
yet
still
be
able
to
explore
your
topic
in
some
depth,
you
should
look
at
just
one
or
two
aspects
of
your
topic.
To
help
you
narrow
your
focus,
you
will
write
one
or
two
sentences
explaining
exactly
what
it
is
that
you
want
to
discover.
Let’s
call
these
sentences
‘I
want
to
know
…’
research
statements.
Some
students
can
immediately
write
these
statements
quite
easily;
other
students
take
a
few
weeks
before
they
can,
as
they
first
want
to
become
more
familiar
with
Japan,
with
their
research
topic,
and
with
their
research
participants
and
context.
Once
you
have
decided
on
your
research
topic
and
narrowed
your
research
focus,
the
next
step
is
to
decide
how
to
do
your
fieldwork
project.
There
are
a
number
of
decisions
that
you
need
to
make
at
this
point,
some
of
which
are
straightforward
but
some
of
which
will
take
more
consideration
and
discussion.
These
decisions
include
deciding:
what
research
context
to
focus
on
who
your
participants
will
be,
and
how
you
will
find
them
how
to
ask
your
participants
for
their
consent
to
participate
in
your
project
what
data
to
gather
how
to
gather
and
analyze
that
data
how
to
present
your
results
To
illustrate
these
decisions,
let’s
look
at
some
examples
of
fieldwork
conducted
by
your
sempai.
Further
examples
are
provided
in
Appendix
A.

16. 16
Examples
of
fieldwork
Topic
1:
Sempai-­‐kohai
relationships
in
a
Japanese
university
club
I
want
to
know
….
…
how
sempai-­‐kohai
relationships
in
a
university
kendo
club
are
created
and
recreated.
I
joined
the
kendo
club;
observed
and
participated
in
club
activities
including
practices
and
competitions;
interviewed
the
kendo
club
leader,
managers,
and
some
members;
made
detailed
notes
about
the
club
practices
and
products;
and
read
up
about
sempai-­‐kohai
relationships
in
Japan.
All
of
my
research
was
conducted
in
Japanese.
Topic
2:
Appropriate
behavior
of
children
at
a
Japanese
daycare
center
I
want
to
know
….
…
what
‘appropriate’
behaviour
is
for
children
at
a
Japanese
daycare
center.
…
how
these
children
learn
these
‘appropriate’
behaviours.
I
spent
one
day
at
a
Japanese
daycare
center,
taking
care
of
the
children,
and
participating
in
and
observing
their
daily
events;
administered
a
questionnaire
to
Japanese
university
students
about
their
memories
of
growing
up;
interviewed
Japanese
university
students
about
growing
up
in
Japan;
and
read
up
about
how
Japanese
children
are
socialized
at
home
and
in
daycare
centers.
Most
of
my
research
was
conducted
in
Japanese.
Topic
3:
Café
culture
in
Japan
I
want
to
know
…
…
what
happens
in
theme
cafes
in
Japan.
…
what
kinds
of
people
go
to
theme
cafes,
and
why.
…
how
these
people
feel
about
going
to
these
cafes.
I
visited
three
theme
cafes;
interviewed
three
customers
of
theme
cafes;
gave
a
questionnaire
to
students
to
explore
their
feelings
about
theme
cafes;
and
read
about
theme
cafes
in
Japan.
Topic
4:
Masculinity
in
Japan
I
want
to
know
…
…
how
Japanese
people
define
‘masculinity’.
I
observed
Japanese
men
in
their
everyday
life;
I
interviewed
17
students;
I
gave
a
questionnaire
(in
Japanese)
to
university
students;
and
I
read
about
masculinity
in
Japan.
Most
of
my
research
was
conducted
in
Japanese.
Topic
5:
Christianity
in
Japan
I
want
to
know
….
…
why
young
Japanese
people
choose
to
convert
to
Christianity.
…
what
the
experience
of
being
a
young
Christian
in
Japan
is
like.
I
joined
a
local
church;
attended
and
observed
worship
every
Sunday;
interviewed
the
pastors
and
members
of
the
church
congregation
about
why
they
converted
to
Christianity
and
what
it
meant
for
them
to
be
a
Christian;
and
read
up
about
Christianity
in
Japan.
Topic
6:
Political
activism
among
youth
in
Japan
Research
statements:
I
want
to
know
….
…
how
Japanese
university
students
explore
political
issues
in
a
discussion
club.
I
joined
the
Nanzan
University
discussion
group
called
The
Others;
attended
group
meetings
each
week
and
participated
in
the
school
festival
activities
in
early
November;
interviewed
The
Others
members
and
the
professor
who
began
it;
and
read
up
about
political
activism
in
Japan.
All
of
my
research
was
conducted
in
Japanese.

17. 17
Topic
7:
Young
deaf
Japanese
people
Research
statement:
I
want
to
know
….
…
what
daily
life
is
like
as
a
young
deaf
adult.
I
joined
a
sign
language
class
at
the
Nanzan
Extension
College;
joined
a
community
sign
language
support
group,
attending
and
observing
their
activities;
interviewed
two
young
deaf
people
about
their
daily
lives;
and
read
up
about
Japanese
sign
language
and
the
Japanese
education
system
for
young
deaf
people.
All
of
my
research
was
conducted
in
Japanese.
Topic
8:
Takarazuka
fans
Research
statements:
I
want
to
know
….
…
why
fans
like
Takarazuka.
…
why
some
fans
like
otokoyaku
(the
male
role).
I
joined
a
Takarazuka
fan
club,
followed
their
websites
and
blogs,
and
bought
their
products;
attended
two
Takarazuka
performances;
interviewed
fans
using
pictures
(visual
prompts);
and
read
up
about
Takarazuka
and
gender
in
Japan.
Most
of
my
research
was
conducted
in
Japanese.
What
is
fieldwork?
“Research
is
a
process
of
trying
to
gain
a
better
understanding
of
the
complexities
of
human
experience.”
(Marshall
&
Rossman,
2006,
p.
23)
There
are
many
ways
to
study
culture;
fieldwork
is
one
of
them.
The
goal
of
field
research
is
to
understand
daily
life
from
the
perspectives
of
those
in
the
setting
or
social
group
being
studied
(Bailey,
1996,
p.
2).
It
is
the
systematic
study
of
everyday
life,
and
developed
within
the
field
of
anthropology,
or
the
study
of
humans.
The
defining
features
of
fieldwork
are
that
the
researcher
gathers
data
‘in
the
field’
by
personally
experience
daily
life
there.
The
fieldworker
wants
to
learn
first-­‐hand
how
the
people
in
the
setting
live,
how
they
talk,
how
they
behave,
and
how
they
think
about
their
lives.
(Emerson,
1988,
p.
1,
from
Bailey,
1996,
p.
3).
Fieldwork
is
a
systematic
method
of
research,
and
follows
clearly
defined
procedures.
Fieldworkers
answer
research
questions
or
‘I
want
to
know
…’
statements,
gather
data
systematically,
write
field
notes,
and
make
claims
about
what
they
find
based
upon
evidence
that
they
have
gathered.
Although
field
research
is
systematic,
it
rarely
requires
hypothesis
testing
or
the
manipulation
and
control
of
variables
(Bailey,
1996).
However,
it
is
often
used
for
generating
theory
and
hypotheses
that
can
be
tested
later
using
other
research
methods.
On
the
other
hand,
field
research
can
be
flexible,
chaotic,
and
sometimes
emotional,
without
rigid
rules
to
guide
some
aspects
of
the
research
process.
You
can
rarely
predict
the
fieldwork
experience
prior
to
engaging
in
it
(Bailey,
1996).
Field
research
is
not
for
those
who
need
control
and
structure
or
who
cannot
deal
easily
with
ambiguity,
creativity,
and
flexibility
(Neuman
1991),
as
events
in
the
field
often
determine
the
nature
of
the
interactions
and
what
is
observed
(Bailey,
1996).
As
fieldwork
is
conducted
in
the
natural
settings
where
your
participants
live,
work
and
play,
it
is
essential
to
minimize
your
interference
in
your
participants’
lives
so
you
can
learn
what
they
are
really
like.
The
goal
is
to
participate
and
observe
yet
disturb
daily
routines
as
little
as
possible.
That
is,
to
minimize
the
‘response
effect’
–
the
impact
your

18. presence
and
interactions
have
on
your
participants’
behavior
and
your
style
of
interviewing
has
on
the
way
they
represent
themselves
to
you.
One
response
effect
is
the
‘expectancy
effect’,
when
you
are
clearly
fishing
for
an
answer
that
you
want
to
hear
and
your
participant
responds
accordingly.
Another
response
effect
is
the
Hawthorne
effect,
when
people
behave
in
atypical
ways
because
they
know
that
they
are
being
observed
(Omohundro,
2008,
p.
59).
A
further
danger
to
avoid
is
‘drive-­‐by
fieldwork’,
when
you
seek
to
obtain
as
much
information
as
possible
from
a
community
or
participant
without
fully
obtaining
their
informed
consent,
or
considering
the
impact
of
your
fieldwork
on
their
lives.
We
look
at
these
ethical
concerns
further
in
chapter
5.
The
fieldwork
cycle:
Although
all
fieldwork
researchers
hope
to
plan
out
their
fieldwork
project
before
they
begin,
in
reality
this
is
impossible
as
their
research
schedule
is
determined
by
what
is
happening
in
the
field
–
by
the
schedule
of
the
activities
of
the
group,
by
the
availability
of
participants,
and
even
by
the
weather
and
unexpected
events.
Nonetheless,
here
is
a
model
of
the
cycle
of
fieldwork,
followed
by
a
short
explanation
of
each
step.
18
The Fieldwork Cycle!
6. present your
fieldwork!
5. decide on
your claims!
Step
1:
Create
your
fieldwork
plan
1. create your
fieldwork plan!
2. find
participants!
3. create data!
4. analyze data!
a)
think
about
what
you
already
know
b)
reflect
on
your
own
identity
c)
write
2-­‐3
‘I
want
to
know’
research
statements
d)
write
your
‘I
want
to
know’
research
statements
e)
decide
on
your
participants
f)
decide
how
to
create
your
data
g)
read
books/articles
–
share
each
class
Step
2:
Find
participants
a)
identify
the
gatekeepers
(‘fate
keepers’?)
b)
work
out
how
to
contact
them
c)
think
about
their
needs
–
why
might
they
help
you?
d)
contact
the
gatekeepers

19. 19
Step
3:
Create
your
data
Using
the
tools
from
their
fieldwork
toolkit,
gather
data
by:
a)
looking
–
‘observing’
what
is
happening
in
the
field,
and
taking
systematic
field
notes
course
goal:
observe
at
least
one
setting,
and
make
field
notes
b)
doing
–
‘participating’
in
what
goes
on
the
setting,
as
much
as
possible
course
goal:
participate
in
at
least
one
event
c)
asking
–
informally
and
formally
interviewing
participants,
and
possibly
asking
them
to
complete
a
questionnaire
course
goal:
formally
interview
at
least
three
people,
recording
them
if
possible
course
goal:
informally
interview
as
many
people
as
possible
course
goal:
create
and
give
a
two-­‐page
questionnaire,
if
appropriate
d)
reading
–
primary
source
documents
(such
as
the
written
rules
and
regulations
of
a
group,
their
homepage,
correspondence
from
the
group
to
its
members)
and
secondary
source
documents
(articles
and
books
written
about
that
group
by
other
people,
such
as
journalists
and
researchers).
course
goal:
read
two
to
three
primary
source
documents,
if
available
course
goal:
read
three
secondary
source
documents
Step
4:
Analyze
your
data
a)
keep
all
your
data
in
a
fieldwork
portfolio
b)
write
a
research
summary
sheet
each
time
to
summarize
the
data
you
gathered
and
reflect
about
your
fieldwork
experiences
c)
keep
a
fieldwork
journal
for
thoughts
and
ideas
Step
5:
Decide
on
your
claims
a)
describe
the
setting,
participants,
products
(including
symbols),
practices
b)
answer
your
‘I
want
to
know’
research
statements
Step
6:
Present
your
fieldwork
a)
give
a
15-­‐min
presentation
in
the
final
class
b)
write
a
2500-­‐word
report
(essay
or
online)
c)
write
a
500-­‐word
reflection
essay
d)
submit
your
fieldwork
portfolio,
with:
research
sheets
+
preparatory
notes
+
data
your
research
journal

20. 20
The
fieldworker’s
mental
toolkit
Fieldwork
is
different
to
research
in
the
physical
sciences
(like
biology
or
chemistry)
and
the
other
social
sciences
(like
economics);
it
has
particular
ways
of
thinking.
Here
are
eight
ways
of
thinking
that
are
key
to
helping
you
do
better
fieldwork.
1.
Think
descriptively
Your
principal
fieldwork
task
is
to
create
a
careful,
detailed
thick
description
of
your
participants,
their
experiences,
their
understandings
of
those
experiences,
the
contexts
in
which
they
live,
and
their
relationships
with
other
people.
Fieldwork
provides
you
with
many
tools
to
help
you
do
this:
you
observe
your
participants,
informally
and
formally
interview
them,
survey
them,
and
read
primary
source
documents
(such
as
university
club
rules
and
regulations,
and
club
webpages
and
social
media),
to
help
you
construct
your
thick
description.
2.
Think
‘emically’
The
primary
goal
of
your
fieldwork
is
to
understand
how
your
participants
experience
the
world
–
that
is,
to
get
inside
your
participants’
minds
and
see
the
world
from
their
perspective.
This
insider’s
view
is
called
the
emic
perspective.
As
Omohundro
(2008)
notes,
the
goal
of
the
fieldwork
is
to
learn
the
meanings
your
participants
give
to
their
life,
and
then
translate
them
for
those
who
aren't
participants
in
the
culture.
And
as
with
a
translation
of
literature,
the
fieldworker’s
translation
of
meaning
in
culture
is
imperfect,
incomplete,
and
imprecise
(Bonvillian
2003,
63),
but
to
catch
even
a
glimpse
of
how
others
see
the
world
is
worth
the
effort.
Think
of
the
task
of
translation
as
a
restatement
of
the
participants’
meaning
that
is
easier
to
understand;
you
have
been
successful
when
your
participants
agree
that
your
translation
is
pretty
accurate
(Omohundro,
2008).
3.
Think
socially
In
fieldwork,
it
is
important
to
understand
not
only
each
participant’s
individual
perspectives
but
also
to
put
these
perspectives
into
a
social
context
–
that
is,
to
understand
how
each
participant’s
web
of
social
relationships
shapes
these
perceptions.
Each
participant
is
nested
within
groups
(such
as
their
family
and
friendship
groups)
and
social
institutions
(such
as
schools,
clubs,
and
workplaces)
that
affect
behavior,
practices,
identity
and
ideas.
To
understand
individual
perspectives
it
is
necessary
to
understand
these
social
factors.
4.
Think
holistically
In
your
fieldwork
project,
endeavor
to
think
holistically;
that
is,
try
to
see
the
big
picture
–
the
connections
between
different
aspects
of
your
participants’
experiences,
and
the
context
for
these
practices.
Most
cultural
practices
are
influenced
by
many
factors
–
and
your
job
is
to
try
and
understand
these
factors
and
provide
an
account
of
them.
5.
Think
comparatively
In
fieldwork,
it
is
helpful
to
compare
the
experiences
of
one
person
with
another,
one
time
period
with
another,
one
culture
with
another.
This
can
help
you
see
what
is
similar
and
what
is
different.
However,
when
comparing
cultures,
do
not
be
fooled
by
surface
similarities
and
differences.
As
you
get
to
know
a
culture
more,
comparisons
become
more
complicated

21. but
more
accurate.
Also
be
careful
of
the
terms
you
use
to
describe
a
culture
–
are
they
terms
from
your
own
culture,
or
from
the
culture
you
are
studying?
21
6.
Think
historically
It
is
tempting
to
treat
the
ways
people
live
now
as
normal
or
best
or
timeless.
However,
do
not
assume
that
the
way
something
is
now
is
the
way
it
has
always
been;
so,
when
writing
up
your
fieldwork,
do
not
describe
Japanese
culture
in
the
present
tense,
assuming
a
‘timeless
ethnographic
present’.
Rather,
clearly
limit
your
claims
to
the
present
moment
in
time.
As
Omohundro
(2008)
notes,
all
cultures
are
flowing
out
of
a
past
that
needs
to
be
studied
and
into
a
future
that
surely
will
not
be
like
today.
7.
Think
symbolically
Culture
is
largely
learned
and
expressed
through
symbols,
such
as
words
(language,
such
as
greetings),
objects
(material
culture,
such
as
a
salaryman’s
suit)
and
actions
(including
ritualized
behavior,
such
as
bowing).
Much
of
your
fieldwork
will
be
spent
identifying
the
symbols
your
participants
use,
and
understanding
the
meanings
they
give
them.
Once
you
know
the
meaning
of
symbols
and
how
they
are
used,
you
can
better
understand
your
participants’
daily
life.
This
is
because
you
will
be
able
to
identify
how
your
participants
think
and
feel
when
they
use
symbols
to
represent
and
communicate
meaning,
both
to
themselves
and
to
others.
8.
Think
reflectively
and
critically
In
the
physical
sciences,
researchers
use
instruments
such
as
thermometers
to
measure
phenomena.
In
fieldwork,
however,
you
yourself
are
the
main
research
instrument
–
you
are
the
one
observing,
interviewing,
and
reading.
To
ensure
that
you
are
not
allowing
your
own
individual
and
cultural
perspective
to
determine
your
fieldwork
results,
it
is
important
to
critically
reflect
about
the
data
that
you
are
gathering
and
how
you
are
gathering
it.
Be
careful
not
to
judge
your
participants
from
your
own
cultural
perspective,
difficult
as
this
may
seem
to
do.
Rather,
strive
to
understand
your
participants
from
their
own
perspective,
in
terms
of
their
own
culture.
Also,
do
not
accept
things
at
face
value;
rather,
triangulate
your
findings
by
gathering
data
from
different
sources
(such
as
from
different
people)
and
in
different
ways
(for
example,
by
both
observing
and
interviewing).
What
makes
fieldwork
unique
is
that
it
does
not
just
employ
one
or
two
of
these
ways
of
thinking
but
combines
all
of
them
together,
to
create
a
thick,
holistic
account
of
the
practices
of
a
group
of
people
in
a
particular
cultural
context.
In
your
fieldwork
project,
focus
on
the
one
or
two
aspects
that
you
have
identified
in
your
‘I
want
to
know’
statements.
Note
both
the
personal
and
social
dimensions
of
your
participants’
experiences,
embed
them
in
an
historical
context,
and
illustrate
how
cultural
symbols
are
used
to
create
and
communicate
meaning.
This
is
not
to
suggest,
however,
that
all
researchers
doing
fieldwork
adopt
a
similar
approach.
Broadly,
there
are
two
schools
in
anthropology,
the
scientific
approach
and
the
humanistic
approach
(Omohundro,
2008,
p.
6).
More
scientific
approaches
to
fieldwork
adopt
many
of
the
research
processes
of
the
physical
sciences:
they
strive
to
discover
patterns
of
behavior
and
ways
of
thinking
by
categorizing,
comparing,
and
explaining
social
phenomenon
with
the
goal
of
making
and
testing
generalizations
and
so
accumulate
knowledge
based
on
reliable
empirical
evidence.
More
humanistic
approaches
to
field,
on
the
other
hand,
instead
strive
not
to
discover
laws
of
predictable
behavior
nor
to
answer
our
deepest
questions
about
life,
the
universe
and
everything
but
rather
to
make
available
to
us
answers
that
others,

22. guarding
their
sheep
in
other
valleys,
have
discovered
(Omohundro,
2008).
In
our
fieldwork
projects,
let’s
adopt
both
approaches:
the
humanistic
agenda
is
our
goal,
and
the
scientific
approach
is
our
method
(Omohundro,
2008,
p.
6).
Everyone
has
a
worldview,
whether
explicit
or
implicit.
Our
worldview
helps
us
create
accounts,
descriptions,
and
explanations
of
our
social
world.
These
allow
us
to
function
and
make
sense
of
our
experiences.
Some
people’s
worldviews
have
an
explicit
theoretical
perspective,
such
as
the
scientific
approach
or
the
humanistic
approach,
and
others
have
more
idiosyncratic,
implicit
and
personal
worldviews
(Fetterman
1982).
Your
worldview
will
most
likely
influence
your
selection
of
a
research
project,
and
it
certainly
will
affect
your
observations
and
interactions
within
the
setting,
so
it
is
important
to
explore
it
and
reflect
about
it
as
you
do
your
fieldwork.
Discussion
questions:
1.
Have
you
ever
done
any
research
before?
What
did
you
do?
2.
What
is
your
image
of
‘ideal
research’?
Where
do
you
think
that
ideal
comes
from?
3.
Do
you
think
that
combining
the
scientific
research
and
the
humanistic
approach
is
appropriate
for
fieldwork?
Why
is
that?
22
The
danger
of
doing
fieldwork