LET Reviewer - General Education

Comprehensive LET Reviewer based
on NCBTS and Table of Specifications
(TOS) released by PRC
LET
Reviewer
GENERAL EDUCATION

1
Table of Contents
English.....................................................................................................2
Study and Thinking Skills ......................................................................2
Writing in the Discipline.........................................................................7
Speech and Oral Communication.......................................................... 14
Philippine Literature............................................................................. 29
Master Works of the World.................................................................... 37
Natural Science...................................................................................... 52
Science ................................................................................................ 52
Biological Science................................................................................. 54
Physical Science................................................................................... 65
Earth and Space Science ...................................................................... 71
Mathematics.......................................................................................... 80
........................................................................................................... 80
Fundamentals of Math ......................................................................... 80
Elementary Algebra .............................................................................. 89
Plane Geometry.................................................................................... 99
Statistics and Probability.................................................................... 109
Social Science...................................................................................... 114
......................................................................................................... 114
Philippine Government, New Constitution with Human Rights ............. 114
Philippine History............................................................................... 119
Basic Economics, Taxation, Land Reform and Cooperative................... 129
Riza’s Life and Works and other Heroes and Heroines.......................... 139
Introduction Humanities: Art Appreciation .......................................... 143
Information and Communication Technology..................................... 151
Introduction to Computers ................................................................. 151
References........................................................................................... 157

2
English
Study and Thinking Skills
Study skills are an array of skills which tackle the process of organizing and taking
in new information, retaining information, or dealing with assessments. They
include mnemonics, which aid the retention of lists of information, effective reading,
concentration techniques, and efficient note taking (Wikipedia).
Thinking skills are mental processes used in cognitive functions that enable people
to process information, make connections, make decisions, and create new ideas.
Study Strategies and Thinking Skills
Remembering Information
Mnemonics – a technique that allows learners to organize, retain, and remember
information.
1. Acronyms – using the first letter from a group of words to form a new word.
Example: ROYGBIV – Color of the rainbow (Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue,
Indigo, Violet)
2. Acrostics - creating sentences from the first letter of every word that needs to
be remembered.
Example: To remember the order of notes of the treble staff which is EGBDF
by using acrostic – Every Good Boy Does Fine.
3. Chaining - creating a story where each word or idea you have to remember
cues the next idea you need to recall.
4. Chunking - breaking large pieces of information down into smaller groups or
units.
5. Imagery or Visualization – creating pictures on your mind.
6. Graphic Organizers - are visual representations that show how information is
organized.
7. Keywords - using what a word sounds like to visualize something.
Example: To remember the two different parts of the brain: cerebrum and
cerebellum. Since the cerebrum is larger than the cerebellum, the keyword
for cerebrum could be drum (a large instrument) and the keyword for
cerebellum could be bell (a small instrument).
8. Method of Loci – creating visual associates using familiar locations.
9. Peg words - visualizing words literally attached to familiar objects.
Example: One is a gun. Two is a shoe. Three is a bee. Four is a door. Five is a
hive.
10. Repetition - saying or writing information several times.
11. Rhymes and Songs – creating rhymes or songs of facts.
Notetaking
A. Linear notetaking is the process of writing down information in the order in
which you receive it.

3
1. Outlining – is breaking down of information into logical formal and
sequence. It is used for topics that include a lot of details.
2. Sentence Method – is writing down each topic as a jot note sentence.
It is used during face-paced lessons. It is not about breaking down
information, but it is about recording information.
B. Non-Linear notetaking
1. SQ3R - is a study strategy for students designed to increase
engagement and retention of a text/written information.
• Survey – skim the text and find the main ideas.
• Question – write down your questions.
• Read – read thoroughly and search for answers to your
questions.
• Recite - write answers based on your thoughts.
• Review – write a summary of what you have learned to be
studied in the future.
2. Guide Notes - are teacher-prepared handouts that provide all
students with background information and standard cues with
specific spaces to write key facts, concepts, and/or relationships
during the lecture.

4
3. Mind Map – is a graphical way to link ideas to a main idea.
4. Charting – uses columns to organize information. It is used for
lessons that cover a lot of facts or relationships between topics.
5. Cornell Method – provides a systematic format for condensing and
organizing notes. It is the method of using notebook to separate
information into 3 distinct categories.

5
Reading Comprehension
Reading comprehension refers to the ability of a reader to construct meaning from
text.
A. Critical Reading
Critical reading means to read carefully, thoughtfully, and with a purpose to
better understand and evaluate a text. In critical reading, reader recognizes
what a text says, reflects on what the text does, and infers on what the text
means.
Critical Reading Strategies
1. Previewing – learning about a text before really reading
2. Contextualizing – placing a text in its historical, biographical, and
cultural context.
3. Questioning to understand and remember – asking questions about the
content or the author.
4. Reflecting on challenges to your beliefs and values – identifying your
personal response.
5. Outlining and summarizing – identifying the main ideas and restating
them in your own words.
6. Evaluating an argument – testing the logic of a text as well as its
credibility and emotional impact.
7. Comparing and contrasting related readings – exploring likeness and
difference between texts to understand them better.
B. Functional Reading
Readings often contain more than just words. Graphics accompany the text
and knowing how to read these visual aids help the reader how to relate it to
the ideas of the selection.
1. Photographs – are visual images that are used to describe the text and
they help readers to comprehend what the text is trying to convey.
2. Diagrams – are graphic aids that show information visually so that the
reader can better understand and remember the ideas. They give the
reader a picture of how a process or relationship works.
3. Charts - use to communicate information graphically and can help
illustrate numerical data like comparisons and trends so it is easier for
the reader to understand.
4. Tables - are used to organize data that is too detailed or complicated to
be described adequately in the text, allowing the reader to quickly see
the results. They are used to organize information to show patterns
and relationships.
5. Graphs - present data visually with lines, bars, or circles that show
how data compare with each other.
6. Maps - visually condense material to show relationships. They are
diagram that places important topics in a central location and
connects major points and supporting details in a visual display that
shows degrees of importance which uses space in a free and graphic
manner.
C. Active Reading
Active reading is a process or technique of actively engaging with the text we
are reading. Active reading allows readers to:
• capture main ideas, key concepts, and details of reading,
• target, reduce, and distill the needed information from the text,
• engage with the text by making connections with their own knowledge
and lives, and
• ask questions that help them think deeper about the content.

6
Active Reading Strategies
1. Predict – try figure out what might happen next.
2. Visualize – picture the people, places, and events being described.
3. Connect – connect what you are reading to other texts and the real
world.
4. Question – ask questions before, during, and after reading.
5. Clarify – stop and check for understanding, identify main point, and
summarize.
6. Evaluate – form opinion and draw conclusion.
Levels of Comprehension Skills
1. Literal Level of Comprehension (Reading the lines) - focuses on reading the
passages, hearing the words, or viewing the images. It involves identifying
the important and essential information.
2. Inferential Level of Comprehension (Reading between the lines) - the focus
shifts to reading between the lines, looking at what is implied by the material
under study. It requires students to combine pieces of information in order to
make inferences about the author's intent and message.
3. Critical Level of Comprehension (Reading beyond the lines) - the principal
focus of this level of comprehension is the aspect of evaluation. It is the
judgment of validity or worth of what is read or heard, based on sound
criteria of standards developed through previous experiences.
4. Application Level of Comprehension - understandings at the literal and
interpretive levels are combined, reorganized, and restructured at the applied
level to express opinions, draw new insights and develop fresh ideas.

7
Writing in the Discipline
Common Sentence Errors
A. Sentence Fragment
A sentence fragment (also known as an incomplete sentence) is a sentence
that is missing a subject, a verb, or both. It does not express complete
thoughts.
1. Missing subject
Incorrect: Ran towards the tree.
Correct: The dog ran towards the tree
2. Missing verb
Incorrect: My little brother
Correct: My little brother ran away.
3. Missing subject and verb
Incorrect: On the table.
Correct: The book is on the table.
4. Dependent clause or subordinate clause written as a sentence
Subordinate clauses (dependent clause) are group of words that contain a
subject and a verb, but they do not express complete thoughts.
Incorrect: Because he was never on time.
Correct: He lost his job because he was never on time.
B. Run-on Sentence
A run-on sentence is a sentence in which two complete thoughts are joined
together without using conjunction or proper punctuation.
How can you fix a run-on sentence?
1. Separate the independent clauses into sentences.
Incorrect: I love to write papers I would write one every day if I had the
time.
Correct: I love to write papers. I would write one every day if I had the
time.
2. Use a comma and a coordinating conjunction
Incorrect: Live life to the fullest don’t take anything for granted.
Correct: Live life to the fullest, and don’t take anything for granted.
3. Use a semicolon to separate each complete thought
Incorrect: Lila enjoyed the bouquet of tulips John gave her on prom night
however she prefers roses.
Correct: Lila enjoyed the bouquet of tulips John gave her on prom night;
however, she prefers roses.
4. Restructure the sentence by subordinating one of the clauses
Incorrect: I told my roommate I would be late, she still locked me out.
Correct: Although I told my roommate I would be late, she still locked me
out.

8
Types of Run-on Sentences
1. A fused sentence occurs when independent clauses run together with no
marks of punctuation or coordinating conjunctions to separate them.
Example:
Incorrect: Winnie dropped her watch it felt in the mud.
Correct: Winnie dropped her watch, and it felt in the mud.
2. A comma splice occurs when two or more independent clauses are joined
only by a comma.
Example:
Incorrect: Carlo read the novel, his friends saw the movie.
Correct: Carlo read the novel. His friends saw the movie.
C. Dangling and Misplaced Modifiers
A modifier is a word, phrase, or clause that clarifies or describes another
word, phrase, or clause.
A dangling modifier is a grammatical error where the modifying word or
phrase is attached to the wrong subject or where the subject is missing in a
sentence.
Examples:
Incorrect: To win the spelling bee, Luis and Gerard should join our team.
Correct: If we want to win the spelling bee this year, Luis and Gerard should
join our team.
Incorrect: Working through the night, the report was finished in time for
class.
Correct: Working through the night, Jeremy finished the report in time for
class.
A misplaced modifier is a word, phrase, or clause that is improperly
separated from the word it modifies or describes.
Examples:
Incorrect: She wore a bicycle helmet on her head that was too large.
Correct: She wore a bicycle helmet that was too large on her head.
Incorrect: They bought a puppy for my sister they call Pepe.
Correct: They bought a puppy they call Pepe for my sister.
D. Faulty Parallelism
A faulty parallelism happens when the structure of a sentence is not
grammatically parallel.
1. Use parallel structure with elements joined by coordinating conjunctions,
especially and, but, and or.
Incorrect: I enjoy cooking and to bake.
Correct: I enjoy cooking and baking.
2. Use parallel structure with elements in lists or in a series.
Incorrect: The frustrated customer wanted to exchange the article, to
obtain a refund or she wanted to speak to the manager.
Correct: The frustrated customer wanted to exchange the article, to
obtain a refund or to speak to the manager.
3. Use parallel structure with elements being compared
Incorrect: l like painting than to bake.
Correct: I like painting than baking.

9
4. Use parallel structure with elements joined by a linking verb or a verb of
being
Incorrect: Many people mistakenly think that being wealthy is the same
thing as to be happy.
Correct: Many people mistakenly think that being wealthy is the same
thing as being happy.
5. Use parallel structure with elements joined by a correlative conjunction
Incorrect: Bert will meet us either at the restaurant or he will be at the
taxi stand.
Correct: Either Bert will meet us at the restaurant or he will be at the taxi
stand.
E. Incorrect word usage
Affect (verb) – means to influence
Effect (noun) – indicates the result of an influence
Incorrect: How did the play effect you?
Correct: How did the play affect you?
Better – means recovering
Well – means completely recovered
Incorrect: He is well now than he was week ago.
Correct: He is better now than he was week ago.
If – introduces a condition
Whether – introduces a choice
Incorrect: He asked me if I intended to go to Korea.
Correct: He asked me whether I intended to go to Korea.
Flout – means to insult
Flaunt – means to make a display of
Incorrect: Mr. Sanchez flaunted the authority of the principal.
Correct: Mr. Sanchez flouted the authority of the principal.
Advice (noun) – an opinion or recommendation offered as a guide to action
Advise (verb) - to recommend, or to give information to someone
Incorrect: I have a problem and need some advise.
Correct: I have a problem and need some advice.
The Topic Sentence and Paragraph
Paragraph
A paragraph is a group of related sentences that present and develop one main idea.
Parts of a Paragraph
1. Topic sentence – states the main or general idea of a paragraph.
2. Supporting details – supports the topic sentence. It explains the main idea. It
gives details relating to the main idea.
3. Concluding statement – restates or sums up the main idea.

10
Topic Sentence
• It states the main idea.
• It addresses one aspect of the subject that can be adequately covered in one
paragraph.
• It controls the other sentences in the paragraph.
• It is more general than the sentences that develop it.
There are two types of topic sentence:
1. Stated or obvious topic sentence – this is the type of topic sentence that is
correctly expressed in the paragraph.
Example:
I think my mom would be a great teacher. She cares about my progress in
school. When teaching me a difficult skill, she is a patient and gives me a
variety of ways to learn. She also helps me with mistakes. Let my mom teach!
Topic sentence: I think my mom would be a great teacher.
2. Implied topic sentence – this is type of topic sentence that is not stated
directly but is strongly suggested by the supporting details in the paragraph.
Example:
Yellow, the color of the sun, is often associated with optimism, happiness,
and friendship. Green, the color of nature, has come to suggest growth and
rebirth. Blue, the color of the sky, may suggest eternity or endless beauty.
Red, the color of both blood and fire, is often connected with strong feelings
such as courage, lust, and rage.
Topic sentence: Different colors may bring different meanings or symbolic
representation.
Positions of Topic Sentence
1. At the beginning – topic sentence is usually found at the beginning of a
paragraph, where it gives a preview of and direction to the sentences that
come after it.
2. At the end – sometimes, the topic sentence comes at the end of the
paragraph, where it draws a conclusion or functions as a summary.
3. At the middle - less frequently, topic sentence comes in the middle of the
paragraph, where it can provide a transition between two kinds of details.
4. At both beginning and end – the topic sentence can also be found in the
beginning and end of the paragraph.

11
Elements of Good Paragraph
1. Unity – all sentences in a paragraph relate to the topic sentence. All the
supporting sentences in a paragraph must be relevant, meaning directly
related to the main idea.
2. Coherence – the sentences must hold together, that is, the movement from
one sentence to the next must be logical and smooth without obvious shifts
or jumps.
Two ways of creating coherence are: use transition words to create bridges
from one sentence to the next and be consistent in using verb tenses and
point of voice.
3. Completeness – it means a paragraph is well-developed. All sentences should
clearly and sufficiently support the topic sentence.
Patterns of Paragraph Development
1. Narration
Narration tells a story. It relates an incident or series of events that leads to a
conclusion or ending. It tells the reader where, when and what happened.
Narration follows a chronological pattern of development. It is a convincing
mode of paragraph development to the extent that it tells a coherent story.
A narrative paragraph contains action verbs and transition words that
indicate time or sequence.
2. Description
Description gives information of what a person, an object, a place, or a
situation is like. It appeals to the reader’s senses - it makes the reader see,
hear, taste, smell, or feel the subject.
A descriptive paragraph has concrete and specific details, which are carefully
chosen by a writer, to paint a picture in the mind of the reader.

12
3. Definition
Definition explains a concept, term, or subject. Its main purpose is to tell
what something is. It consists of three parts: (1) the term, concept, or subject
to be defined; (2) the general class to which it belongs, and (3) the
characteristics that differentiate it from the other members of its class. This
pattern of development is commonly used in the sciences, humanities, and
business.
4. Comparison/Contrast
Comparison focuses on similarities between things, and contrast focuses on
their differences. Comparison and contrast paragraphs are common in
writing in many academic disciplines like the humanities, sciences, and
business.
A paragraph developed by comparison and contrast has a unifying idea or
purpose. Also, it must be balanced in such a way that there is an equal
amount of information for each subject to avoid.
5. Cause and Effect
A cause-and-effect pattern examines the relationship what happens (the
effect) and why it happens (the cause). This is an effective pattern to use to
help the reader better understand one subject in relation to another.

13
6. Persuasion
A persuasive paragraph intends to convince readers to do or believe in
something. Many writing genres such as critiques or reviews, reaction
papers, editorials, proposals, advertisements, and brochures make strong
use of persuasive paragraphs to state opinions and to influence others.
A persuasive paragraph allows you to express personal conviction or opinion
about an issue or topic and make the readers agree with or adopt writer’s
conviction or opinion.
7. Exemplification
Exemplification provides examples and illustrations to further clarify or
explain the concept or subject matter. It presents the general statement and
then provides specific and concrete examples to expound on the main idea.
8. Problem Solving
A problem solution pattern divides information into two main sections, one
that describes a problem and one that describes a solution. This pattern is
typically used in persuasive writing, where the writer's general purpose is to
convince the reader to support a certain course of action.

14
Speech and Oral Communication
Grammar
Part of Speech
NOUNS
A noun is a word used to describe a person, place, thing, or idea.
Kinds of Nouns
1. Proper Nouns - are the names of specific people, places, things, or ideas.
It should always be capitalized.
Examples: Atty. Dela Cruz, Peter Pan, Quezon City
2. Common Nouns – are the names of any persons, places, things, or ideas.
It is general.
Examples: lawyer, character, municipal city
3. Collective Nouns – are nouns that are singular in form but refer to a
group of people or things.
Examples: furniture, crockery, army
4. Concrete Nouns– refer to people, places, or things that we can experience
with our five senses (taste, touch, sight, hearing, or smell).
Examples: Light, flower, sun
5. Abstract Nouns – are nouns that you cannot sense. They are the names
that we use for emotions, ideals, or ideas.
Examples: joy, hate, faith
6. Countable Nouns – can be counted.
Examples: three books, a dog, six mangoes
7. Uncountable Nouns – cannot be counted.
Examples: water, rice, coffee, sugar
8. Compound Nouns – are nouns that are made up of two or more words.
Examples: toothpaste, blackboard, bedroom
Number of Nouns
• Singular is used when the noun refers to one item.
• Plural is used when the noun refers to more than one item.
Rules in Forming the Plural of Nouns
1. Add -s to form the plural of most nouns.
Examples: boy – boys, chair - chairs
2. Add -es to nouns ending in ch, sh, s, x, or z.
Examples: box – boxes, dress – dresses, church – churches
3. In some cases, nouns ending in s or z, double the s or z prior to adding es.
Examples: gas – gasses, fez - fezzes
4. Add -es to nouns ending with a consonant before an o.
Examples: hero – heroes, tomato – tomatoes, cargo - cargoes
5. Add -s to nouns ending in y after a vowel.
Examples: monkey – monkeys, valley – valleys, key – keys
6. Nouns ending in a consonant + -y, change y to i and add -es.
Examples: puppy – puppies, city – cities, country – countries
7. Most nouns ending in f or fe change f or fe into v and adding es.
Examples: thieve – thieves, loaf – loaves, knife – knives
Exception: Some nouns ending in f, simply add s.
Examples: roof – roofs, belief – beliefs, proof – proofs

15
8. Nouns ending in us, change us to i.
Examples: cactus – cacti, focus – foci
9. Nouns ends in is, change i to e.
Examples: analysis – analyses, ellipsis – ellipses
10. Noun ending in on, change on to a.
Examples: criterion – criteria, phenomenon - phenomena
11. Some nouns do not change at all when they are in plural form.
Examples: fish – fish, sheep – sheep, series – series, species – species
12. Some nouns change their spelling when they become plural. They are called
irregular nouns.
Examples: tooth – teeth, child – children, ox – oxen, goose - geese
Noun Cases
Noun cases refer to a noun's function within that sentence.
1. Nominative – used as subject of a verb.
Example: Ram is an intelligent boy.
2. Objective or Accusative – used as the direct objects of verbs or objects of
preposition.
Example: The vendors sell oranges.
3. Dative – used as indirect object of the verb.
Example: The teacher gave the students few exercises.
4. Possessive or Genitive – denotes possession or ownership.
Example: This is your pencil.
5. Vocative case - used to call (or to get the attention of) a person or persons.
Example: Robert, students are waiting for you in the library.
PRONOUNS
A pronoun is a word that takes the place of a noun.
Antecedent of the pronoun – the noun to which a pronoun refers. A pronoun must
agree with its antecedent.
Examples:
• Bob was late for class, so he had to hurry.
• Rachelle and Rochelle made the pizza that they ate for dinner.
Kinds of Pronouns
1. Personal pronouns – are used for a specific object or person and they change
their forms to indicate the different genders, numbers, case, and persons
speaking. The personal pronouns are I and me, you, he and him, she and her,
it, we and us, and they and them.
Example: She is doing the laundry.
2. Relative pronouns - are used to connect relative clauses to independent
clauses. Relative pronouns include that, what, which, who, and whom.
Example: There is a car in the parking lot that someone has painted a bright
pink.
3. Demonstrative pronouns - are used to show or identify one or a number of
nouns that may be far or near in distance or time. Demonstrative pronouns:
this/these (near) and that/those (far).
Example: That is a beautiful house.

16
4. Interrogative pronouns - are used to ask questions about a person or object
that we do not know about. The interrogative pronouns are who, what,
which, and whose.
Example: Who wants a bag of apple candies?
5. Indefinite pronouns - are used to show unspecified objects or people, whether
in plural or in singular. They are used to indicate the entire noun or some of
the noun or none of the noun. Some common indefinite nouns are anyone,
someone, none, everything, many, few, etc.
Example: Everybody was late to work because of the traffic jam.
6. Reflexive and Intensive pronouns
Reflexive Pronouns are those which are used to indicate a noun which has
been used in an earlier part of the same sentence. These pronouns are
myself, themselves, yourself, ourselves, herself, himself and itself.
Example: Rosa was going to take it to the shop but ended up fixing it herself
one afternoon.
Intensive Pronouns are used to lay emphasis on the pronoun that comes
before them in the sentence.
Example: I built this house myself.
7. Reciprocal pronoun - are used when two or more nouns are doing or being the
same to one another. There are just two reciprocal pronouns - each other and
one another.
Example: They haven’t seen one another since last year.
8. Possessive pronouns - are used to show that something belongs to an
antecedent. The possessive pronouns are my, your, its, his, her, our, their and
whose.
Example: The students practiced their presentation after school.
PRONOUN-ANTECEDENT AGREEMENT
1. A pronoun and its antecedent must agree.
Example: The car would not stop because its brakes failed.
2. A phrase or clause between the subject and verb does not change the
number of the antecedent.
Example: The can of green peas sits on its shelf.
3. Singular indefinite pronoun antecedents take singular pronoun referents,
and plural indefinite pronoun antecedents require plural referents.
Examples:
Singular - Everyone in my English class does his or her homework.
Plural – Both do a good job in their office.
4. Compound subjects joined by and always take a plural referent.
Example: Jane and John made their presentation.
5. With compound subjects joined by or/nor, the referent pronoun agrees with
the antecedent closer to the pronoun.
Examples:
Either Jill or Kate will probably get first prize for her essay.
Neither the dog nor the cats could find their way through the maze.

17
6. Collective Nouns (group, jury, crowd, team, etc.) may be singular or plural,
depending on meaning.
Examples:
Singular - The committee granted its permission.
Plural - The committee put their signatures on the document.
7. Plural form subjects with a singular meaning take a singular referent.
Example: The news has lost its sting two days later.
Singular Pronouns
Nominative Objective Possessive
1st Person I me my, mine
2nd Person you you your, yours
3rd Person he, she, it him, her, it his, her, hers, its
Plural Pronouns
Nominative Objective Possessive
1st Person we us our, ours
2nd Person you you your, yours
3rd Person they them their, theirs
VERB
A verb is a word that expresses an action or a state of being.
Verbs tell you what the subject of a sentence or clause is doing (or being). Verbs are
conjugated according to person, number, gender, tense, aspect, mood, or voice.
Verb Forms
1. Root Form of the Verb
The root form of a verb is the base form of the word.
The root form of the verb is the same as the infinitive form with “to” removed.
Examples: to see – see, to be – be, to go – go
The root form of a verb is used to create other forms of the verb when
conjugated. This is always true with regular verbs, but may not apply with
irregular verbs, depending on the tense.
Examples:
Go - I am going to school.
Show - The girl showed her mother the picture she drew in school.
2. Third Person Singular Form of a Verb
The third person singular (he/she/it/one) conjugation is the verb form that
tends to be different from other conjugations. For regular verbs, the verb
form ends in -s (or sometimes -es).
Examples: he jumps, it works, they climb

18
3. Present Participle Form of a Verb
The present participle verb form is created by adding -ing to the root word. It
is used in the past, present, and future progressive verb tenses.
Examples:
Draw - They have been drawing for hours.
Clean – They will be cleaning the house on Saturday.
4. Past and Past Participle Forms of the Verb
The past and past participle verb form for regular verbs is the root word plus
-ed. It is only used with the past tenses.
Examples:
Stack - The books were stacked on the shelf.
Play - He had played mobile games for the whole weekend.
Forgive - I had forgiven him for his rude words.
Types of Verbs
1. Regular verbs - form their past and past participle forms by adding -ed.
Examples:
Base Form Past Form Past
Participle
cook cooked cooked
play played played
2. Irregular verbs - form their past and past participle forms in different ways.
Examples:
Base Form Past Form Past
Participle
break broke broken
seek Sought sought
3. Transitive verbs – have a definite object on which, or for which the action is
being performed.
Example: Rose is cleaning the kitchen
4. Intransitive verbs – show action but there is no specific object on which the
action is being done.
Example: Rose is cleaning right now.
5. Dynamic verbs – denote an actual action or expression or process done by
the subject.
Example: She buys new clothes every week.
6. Static verbs – tell us about the state of mind of the subject, or the relation
between the subject and the object.
Example: The cupboard requires a new coat of paint.
7. Linking verbs – connect the subject to a noun or adjective that helps in
describing or providing additional information about the subject.
Example: They are kind students.

19
8. Finite verbs –are verbs that have a subject and show tense. They act as the
main verb and can be changed according to the noun. They use in present
and past tense. They can be indicative of passive or active voice and also of
number (singular or plural).
Example: Sara walks home. (The subject is "Sara." The tense of the verb is
the present tense.)
9. Infinite verbs – are verbs that do not show tense. They cannot be main verb
as they do not talk about the action that is being performed by the subject or
noun. They do not indicate tense, mood, or gender. They are used as nouns,
adverbs adjectives. They are also used to form non-finite clauses which are
simply dependent clauses that use non-finite verbs.
• Gerund - Louie likes playing basketball.
• Infinitive - Louie wants a game to play.
• Participle - Lee was the playing reserve.
TENSES
A. Present Tense
a. Simple present – indicates a fact, habit, or a regular action.
Examples:
Fact – She is an author. She writes books.
Habit - She always writes in the morning.
Regular action: She writes two books a year.
b. Present continuous - indicates that an action or condition is
happening now, frequently, and may continue into the future.
Example: She is currently writing a new book.
c. Present perfect
With an action verb: A completed action without a specified time in
the past.
Examples: She has already written 30 books.
With a start verb, e.g. “to be”, “to have”, “to know”, etc.
Example: She has been a writer for 15 years.
d. Present perfect continuous – an action that has already started and is
still going on.
Example: She has been writing books since she was 18.

20
B. Past Tense
a. Simple past – a completed action at a specified time in the past.
Example: She wrote that novel two weeks ago.
b. Past continuous – action in progress in the past either when a shorter
action took place or at a very precise moment.
Example: She was writing that novel when she became ill.
c. Past perfect – action that was completed in the past either before
another action took place or before a very precise moment.
Example: She had written that novel before she became ill.
d. Past perfect continuous – action that had started, continued for some
time and was still in progress in the past either before another action
or before a very precise moment.
Example: She had been writing that novel for a few months when she
became ill.
C. Future Tense
a. Simple future - two usages:
• A decision at the time of speaking (used mainly in dialogues,
and in contracted form).
Example: I’ll write as soon as I can.
• A possibility in the future (usually in combination with an
expression of possibility).
Example: I will probably write this afternoon.
b. Future continuous – an action in progress at a specific time in the
future.
Example: At five o’clock, I will be writing a novel.

21
c. Future perfect – action that will be completed in the future either
before a specific moment or before another action takes place.
Example: She will have written at least two novels by the end of the
year.
d. Future perfect continuous – action that will have started, continued for
some time and will still be in progress in the future either before a
specific moment or before another action takes place.
Example: She will have been writing for a few hours by the time she
left.
Modals
Modal verbs are auxiliary verbs (also called helping verbs) like can, will, could, shall,
must, would, might, and should.
1. Possibility – might, may, could, can
Examples: It looks nice, but it might be very expensive.
2. Ability and skill – can, could
Example: Dianne can speak 3 languages.
3. Advice - should
Example: You shouldn’t smoke.
4. Obligation – must, have to
Example: You must do your homework.
5. Permission – can, could, may
Example: Can I try my hand at it?
6. Habit and inclination – will, would
Example: I will never refuse you anything.
SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT
1. The subject and the verb must agree in number.
Examples:
He goes to work by bus
The dog chases the cat.
2. An intervening phrase or clause between subject and verb does not change
the number of the subject.
Examples:
The team captain, as well as his players, is anxious.
The woman with all the dogs walks down my street.

22
3. Prepositional phrases between the subject and verb usually do not affect
agreement.
Example:
The colors of the rainbow are beautiful.
4. Inverted subjects must agree with the verb.
Examples:
There are butterflies in your garden.
There is a bush near the school playground.
How is Maria handling the news of her grandfather’s death?
5. If two subjects are joined by “and”, they typically require a plural verb form.
Examples:
Kimberly and Keith are friendly.
She and her friends are at the mall.
Exception: The verb is singular if the two subjects separated by “and” refer to
the same person or thing.
Example:
Bacon and eggs is my favorite dish
6. Two subjects joined by “or/not”, “either…or/neither…nor”, “not only…but
also” take the verb that agrees with the subject closest to it.
Examples:
Neither my mother nor my father goes to university.
Either my father or my brothers are coming.
Not only you but also I am planning to go.
7. The verb is singular if the subject is a singular indefinite pronoun such as
each, either, neither, one, no one, every one, someone, anyone, nobody,
somebody, anybody, everybody, one, no.
Examples:
Nobody gets rich from writing nowadays.
Either of the plans is equally dangerous.
The verb is plural if the subject is a plural indefinite pronoun such as
several, few, both, many.
Example:
Few were left alive after the flood.
Some indefinite pronouns (some, any, all, most) may be either singular or
plural, depending upon their use in a sentence: with uncountable, use
singular; with countable, use plural.
Examples:
Some of the books are out of place. Please put them in the right order. (Books
are countable.)
Some of the music was weird. (Music is uncountable.)
8. With words that indicate portions such percent, fraction, part, majority,
some, all, none, remainder, etc. look at the noun after of. If the noun after of
is singular, use a singular verb. If it is plural, use a plural verb.
Examples:
A lot of the pie has disappeared.
A lot of the pies have disappeared.
A third of the city is unemployed.
A third of the people are unemployed.

23
9. Use a singular verb for expressions of measurement, time, money, and
weight when the amount is considered one unit.
Examples:
Four liters of oil was required to get the car running.
Three miles is too far to walk.
10. Plural form subjects with a singular meaning take a singular verb (such as
mumps, home economics, social studies economics, measles, calisthenics,
statistics, civics, physics, gymnastics, phonics, news, acrobatics, aesthetics,
thesis, mathematics, etc.).
Examples:
The news is on at six.
Gymnastics is his favorite sport.
Mathematics is the science of pure quantity.
Plural form subjects with a plural meaning take a plural verb (such scissors,
trousers, eyeglasses, grits, pliers, tweezers, etc.)
Examples:
Scissors are laying on the table.
My jeans aren’t dry, so I will wear shorts.
11. Collective nouns such as group, team, committee, class, and family usually
take singular verb.
Examples:
The herd is stampeding.
The team runs during practice
The crew is preparing to dock the ship.
12. The expression “the number of” takes singular verb while “a number of”
takes plural verb.
Examples:
The number of students in the class is limited.
A number of books are on reserve in the library.
13. Titles of single entities (books, organizations, countries, etc.) are always
singular.
Example:
Harry Potter is a phenomenal novel.
The Burbs is a movie starring Tom Hanks.
ADJECTIVES
Adjectives are words that describe the qualities or states of being of nouns. They
can also describe the quantity of nouns.
Uses of Adjectives
1. Noun modifier - adjectives are words that modify (describe) nouns.
Examples:
My cake should have sixteen candles.
The scariest villain of all time is Darth Vader.
Paul is an intelligent student.

24
2. Predicate adjective - adjectives can also act as a complement to linking verbs
or the verb to be. A linking verb is a verb like to feel, to seem, or to taste that
describes a state of being or a sensory experience.
Examples:
That cow sure is happy.
It smells gross in her bedroom.
Driving is faster than walking.
3. Articles - also modify the nouns.
Examples:
A cat is always afraid of water.
The dog is hungry.
Mark won an award.
Order of Adjectives
The general order of adjectives before a noun.
Examples:
Degrees of comparison
1. Positive makes no comparison.
Examples:
John is smart.
His is family is rich.
The food is delicious.
The ring is expensive.
He is tall.
2. Comparative makes a comparison between two or more nouns.
Examples:
My house is bigger than yours.
The Pacific Ocean is deeper than the Arctic Ocean.
You are more polite than Joey.
My brother is taller than I am, but he is older too.
A rose is more beautiful than a daisy.
The Earth is larger than the moon.
3. Superlative makes a comparison of more than two nouns.
Examples:
Jupiter is the biggest planet in our solar system.
She is the smartest girl in our class.
This is the most interesting book I have ever read.
I am the shortest person in my family.
Sam is the most handsome boy in the whole school.
Mount Everest is the highest mountain in the world.

25
Kinds of Adjectives
1. Descriptive adjective is a word which describes nouns and pronouns.
Example: I have a fast car.
2. Quantitative adjective provides information about the quantity of the nouns
and pronouns.
Example: They have three houses in the province.
3. Proper adjective is the adjective form of proper nouns.
Example: Filipino people are hard workers.
4. Demonstrative adjective directly refers to something or someone.
Example: These cats are cute.
5. Possessive adjective indicates possession or ownership.
Example: Her books are expensive.
6. Interrogative adjective asks a question.
Example: What game do you want to play?
7. Indefinite adjective provides indefinite/unspecific information about the
noun. The common indefinite adjectives are few, many, much, most, all, any,
each, every, either, nobody, several, some, etc.
Example: I gave some candy to her.
ADVERBS
An adverb is a word that modifies (describes) a verb, an adjective, another adverb,
or even a whole sentence.
• Tom Longboat did not run badly. (modifies the verb)
• Tom is very tall. (modified adjective)
• The race finished too quickly. (modifies the adverb)
• Fortunately, Lucy recorded Tom’s win. (modified the sentence)
Types of Adverbs
1. Adverb of Time
Example: She will visit the hospital tomorrow. (When will she visit the
hospital?)
2. Adverb of Place
Example: In summer, flowers bloom everywhere. (Where do the flowers bloom
in summer?)
3. Adverb of Manner
Example: She works fast. (How does she work?)
4. Adverb of Frequency
Example: He likes to watch TV every day. (How often does he watch TV?)
5. Adverb of Degree
Example: She almost finished the work. (How much of the work did she
finish?)
6. Adverb of Confirmation and Negation
Example: They will certainly like this vase. (Will they like this vase?)
Placement of Adverbs
1. Adverbs used to begin sentences or clauses.
Example: Tomorrow, I will be leaving for Korea.
2. Adverbs in the middle
Example: John is always late.
3. Adverbs to end sentence.
Example: He wrote the answers correctly.

26
CONJUNCTIONS
Conjunctions are words that link other words, phrases, or clauses together.
• I like cooking and eating, but I don’t like washing dishes afterward.
• Sophie is clearly exhausted, yet she insists on dancing till dawn.
• Fred saw a dog on the road and decided to adopt the dog, so he brought the
dog home.
Types of Conjunctions
1. Coordinating Conjunctions are used to link or join two words or phrases that
are equally important and complete in terms of grammar when compared
with each other.
Examples:
I told her to leave, for I was very tired.
The bowl of Korean stew is hot and delicious.
We can neither change nor improve it.
She is old but she still goes swimming everyday.
There were ten or twelve people in the room.
Her advice seems strange, yet I believe she’s right.
As you make your bed, so you must lie upon it.
2. Correlative Conjunctions - are simply pairs of conjunctions used in a sentence
to join different words or groups of words in a sentence together.
Examples:
Both the shoes and the dress were completely overpriced.
Either her parents or she is invited to the party tonight.
Neither I nor you are right.
She is not only beautiful but also intelligent.
We can’t decide whether to paint the wall red or white.
3. Subordinating Conjunctions - used to join an independent and complete
clause with a dependent clause that relies on the main clause for meaning
and relevance.
Examples:
The lion is not so fierce as he is painted.
Don’t cry out before you are hurt.
Once I’ve found somewhere to live I’ll send you my address.
They’re coming next week, though I don’t know which day.
PREPOSITIONS
A preposition is a word that usually tells where or when something is in relation to
something else.
Types of Prepositions
1. Prepositions of Place refer to those prepositions that can be used to show
where something is located.
Examples:
The book is on the desk.
She sat at the table.
I watch TV in the living room.

27
2. Prepositions of Time are often used to refer to times and dates.
Examples:
Many shops don't open on Sundays.
She's always up before dawn.
She had promised to be back by five o'clock.
3. Prepositions of Movement show movement from one place to another.
Examples:
The milk is above the soda in the refrigerator.
They told stories around the campfire.
The river runs through the woods.
Preposition Chart
Preposition of Time
Preposition How It’s Used Example
At
Specific time
Mealtime
Part of the day
Age
at 3pm
at lunch
at sundown
at age 30
In
Century
Decade
Year
Month
Season
Time period
in the 1900’s
in the 90’s
in 2021
in November
in Summer
in three
minutes
On
Day of the week
Date
Occasion or event
on Monday
on February 14
on my birthday
Preposition of Place
Preposition How It’s Used Example
At
Address
Specific location
at 26 Ruby St.
at Rainbow
Village
at SM Mall
In
Country
City
Neighborhood
Location inside
in the
Philippines
in Valenzuela
City
in Chinatown
in the kitchen
On
Street
Avenue
Higher than
something
Location outside
on Pearl St.
on Quezon Ave.
on the table
on the patio

28
INTERJECTION
An interjection is a word that you throw in between sentences or thoughts to
express emotion or feelings.
Examples:
• Help! I am about to fall!
• Ouch! That bee just stung me!
• I forgot to do the homework assignment (oops), but my teacher gave me an
extra day to finish it.
• Gee, I hadn’t thought of that.
• Oh, really? I doubt that.
QUESTION TAGS
A question tag is short question at the end of statement.
Rules
1. Positive statement uses a negative tag, or vice-versa
Examples:
May can cook adobo, can’t she?
They aren’t funny, are they?
2. Put “will you” in case of Imperative sentences (Order/Request)
Examples:
Pass me the pen, will you?
Keep quiet, will you?
3. Put “shall we” in case of suggestion often introduced by “let’s”
Examples:
Let’s do our homework first, shall we?
Let’s go for an outing, shall we?
4. When there is no Direct Auxiliary is mentioned
Examples:
John studies hard, doesn’t he?
She bought a dress, didn’t she?
They sing really well, don’t they?
5. When has, have, or had are main verbs
Examples:
He had fever, didn’t he?
She has a bicycle, doesn’t she?

29
Philippine Literature
Pre-Colonial Period (Years before 1565)
• The literature of the pre-colonial Filipinos was characterized by oral
tradition.
• The literature reflects customs and traditions in everyday life such as
households, farming, fishing, hunting, taking care of children, etc.
• They already had own system of writing and the first Filipino alphabet is
called Alibata.
Early Forms of Philippine Literature
• Riddle (bugtong) – consists of two-liner statements, questions or phrases that
has double or hidden meaning. It is called Tigmo in Cebu, Paktakon in
Ilonggo, and Patotdon in Bicol.
• Proverb (salawikain) – is traditional saying or maxim used by Filipinos based
on local culture, wisdom, and philosophies from Filipino life (Wikipedia).
• Tanaga – is a quatrain in with seven syllables each with the same rhyme at
the end of each line.
• Folk Song – is a form of folk lyric which expresses the people's hopes,
aspirations, and lifestyles.
o Ambahan (Mangyan) – about human relationships and social
entertainment
o Hele or Oyayi - lullaby
o Kalusan (Ivatan) – work song
o Kanogan (Cebuano) – song of lamentation for the dead
o Kumintang – war song
o Kundiman – melancholic love song
o Tagay (Cebuano and Waray) – drinking song
• Myth – is a sacred narrative explaining how the world and man came to be in
their present form.
o The Legend of Maria Makiling
o Malakas at Maganda
• Fable – is a short allegorical tale emphasizing on a moral or any principle of
behavior, and the characters are usually animals.
• Epic – describes the adventures of the hero and can be classified into two
groups: epics of romance, in which the main adventures consist of the hero's
courting of specific women or his search for beautiful women he can marry,
and epics in which the hero undertakes adventures mainly in the service of
his family, his country, his people, and for others (Wikipedia).
o Agyu or Olahing and Tuwaang (Manobos)
o Bantugan (Maranao)
o Biag ni Lam-ang (Ilocano)
o Hinilawod (Panay)
o Hudhud and Alim (Ifugao)
o Kudaman (Palawan)
o Ibalon (Bikolano)
o Sandayo (Subanon)
• Legend – is a traditional story that describes the origin of things and the
world. They also explain the supernatural events, mysteries, and cultural
tradition.

30
Spanish Period (1585 – 1863)
• Literature is classified as religious and secular.
• Alibata was replaced by Roman Alphabet.
• Teaching of Christian Doctrine became the basis of religious practices.
• European legends and traditions brought here became assimilated in our
songs, corridoes, and moro-moros.
• The Spanish language which became the literary language during this time
lent many of its words to our language.
• Grammar books were printed in Filipino.
• Our periodicals during these times gained religious tone.
Forms of Literature during Spanish Period
A. Folk Song
• Leron-Leron Sinta (Tagalog)
• Pamulinawen (Ilokano)
• Dandansoy (Bisaya)
• Sarong Banggi (Bicolano)
• Atin Cu Pung Singsing (Kapampangan)
B. Religious and Recreational Plays
1. Cenaculo – this is a dramatic performance to commemorate the passion
and death of Jesus Christ.
2. Lagaylay – this is a special occasion for the Pilareños of Sorsogon during
Maytime to get together. This also shows praise, respect and offering love
to the Blessed Cross by St. Helena and the mound she dug in.
3. Panunuluyan – this is presented before 12:00 on Christmas Eve. This is a
presentation of the search of the Virgin Mary and St. Joseph for an inn
wherein to deliver the baby Jesus.
4. Salubong – an Easter play that dramatizes the meeting of the Risen
Christ and his Mother.
5. Awit – is a colorful tales of chivalry made for singing and chanting.
Example: Ibong Adarna
6. Balagtasan - this is a poetic joust or a contest of skills in debate on a
particular topic or issue.
7. Korido – is a metrical tale written in octosyllabic quatrains. Example:
Florante at Laura by Francisco Baltazar
8. Carillo (Shadow Play) – this is a form of dramatic entertainment
performed on a moonless night during a town fiesta or on dark nights
after a harvest. This shadow play is made by projecting cardboard figures
before a lamp against a white sheet. The figures are moved like
marionettes whose dialogues are produced by some experts.
9. Karagatan - this is a poetic vehicle of a socio- religious nature celebrated
during the death of a person. Duplo replaced the Karagatan. this is a
poetic joust in speaking and reasoning.
10. Moro-Moro – a play that depicts the fighting between Moros and
Christians.
11. Sainete – a short musical comedy that were exaggerated and shown
between long plays.
12. Tibag – the word tibag means to excavate. This ritual was brought here
by the Spaniard to remind the people about the search of St. Helena for
the Cross on which Jesus died through a dramatic performance.
13. Zarzuela – considered the father of the drama; it is a musical comedy or
melodrama three acts which dealt with man’s passions and emotions like
love, hate, revenge, cruelty, avarice or some social or political problem.

31
First Books Written During the Spanish Period
1. Ang Doctrina Cristiana (The Christian Doctrine) – it was written by Fr. Juan de
Placencia and Fr. Domingo Nieva, in Tagalog and Spanish. It contained the
Our Father, Hail Mary, Hail Holy Queen, Ten Commandments, The Seven
Mortal Sins, How to Confess, and The Catechism.
2. Nuestra Señora del Rosario – the second book printed in the Philippines by
Fr. Blancas de San Jose in 1602. It contains the biographies of saints,
novenas, and questions and answers on religion.
3. Ang Barlaan at Josephat – this is a Biblical story printed in the Philippines
and translated to Tagalog from Greek by Fr. Antonio de Borja.
4. Pasion – this is a book about life and suffering of Jesus Christ.
5. Urbana at Felisa – it was written by Modesto de Castro, the Father of Classic
Prose in Tagalog. These are letters exchanges of two sisters dealing with good
behavior.
6. Vocabulario Dela Lengua Tagala – this is the first Tagalog dictionary written
by Fr. Pedro de Dan Buenaventura.
Notable Filipinos During Spanish Period
1. Francisco Baltazar- he was popularly known as Balagtas and he is the
Master of Traditional Tagalog Poetry.
2. Jose Dela Cruz – he was the foremost exponent of the comedy.
Period of Enlightenment (1872 – 1898)
• Filipino spirit reawakened when the three priests namely Gomez, Burgos and
Zamora were guillotined without sufficient evidence of guilt.
• Literature contained mostly about accusation against the government and
was meant to arouse the people to unite and to prepare for independence.
The Propaganda Movement (1872-1896)
The main goal of the Propaganda Movement was to create reforms in the Philippines.
Their objectives were:
1. Equal treatment for the Filipinos and the Spaniards under the law
2. Recognition of the Philippines as a province of Spain
3. Representation of Filipino in the Spanish Cortes
4. Secularization of the clergy
5. Freedom of speech
6. Abolition of polo y servicios (labor service) and the bandala (forced sale of
local products to the government)
Forms of Literature During Propaganda Movement
A. Political Essays – satires, editorials and news articles were written to attack
and expose the evils of Spanish rule.
1. Diarong Tagalog (1882)
2. La Solidaridad (1888)
B. Political Novels
1. Noli Me Tangere by Jose Rizal (1887)
2. El Filibusterismo by Jose Rizal (1891)

32
C. Poetries
1. Hibik ng Pilipinas by Andres Bonifacio (1896)
2. Liwanag at Dilim by Emilio Jacinto (1896)
3. True Decalogue by Apolinario Mabini (1898)
Notable Filipinos During Propaganda Movement
1. Andres Bonifacio
• He was the Father of the Philippine Revolution.
• He wrote a poem entitled “Pag-ibig sa Tibuang Lupa” in 1986 directed
to the Filipinos in order to arouse their spirit of nationalism and self-
independence.
2. Antonio Luna
• His pen name is Tabing-Ilog.
• He wrote La Independencia.
3. Graciano Lopez-Jeana
• He wrote Fray Botod when he was 18.
• He was first editor of La Solidaridad, the official newspaper of the
Propaganda Movement.
4. Jose Maria Panganiban
• Hi pen name is Jomapa.
• He wrote “Ang Lupang Tinubuan” and “Anatomia de Regines.”
5. Jose Rizal
• His pen names are Laong Laan and Dimasalang.
• He wrote Noli Me Tangere and El Filibusterismo.
6. Marcelo H. Del Pilar
• His pen names are Plaridel and Dolores Manapat.
• He founded the short-lived Diariong Tagalog (Tagalog Newspaper) on
June 1, 1882.
• He wrote “Dasalan at Tuksuhan”, a satire on friar’s hypocrisy,
licentiousness and greed sarcasm.
7. Mariano Ponce
• His names are Naning, Kalipulako, and Tikbalang.
• He wrote Efemeridas Filipinas (1914), Documentos Filipinas (1916),
La Provincia Bulacan (1917), and Wika at Lahi (1917).
8. Pedro Paterno
• His pen name is Justo Desiderio Magalang.
• He wrote Ninay, the first social novel in Spanish by a Filipino, in
1885.
American Regime (1910 – 1945)
• Americans influenced Filipino writers to write using English language.
• Filipino writers went into all forms of literature like news, reporting, poetry,
stories, plays, essays, and novels. Their writings clearly depicted their love of
country and their longings for independence.
Characteristics of Literature During this Period
The literature during this period was divided into:
A. Literature in Spanish
1. Cecilio Apostol - wrote "A Rizal " and is considered the best poem in
praise of the hero of Bagumbayan.
2. Fernando Ma. Guerero - he collected the best of his poem in a book
called Crisalidas, and one of the poems written in this book was
"Invocacion A Rizal."

33
3. Jesus Balmori - well-known for his pen name of Batikuling. He and
Manuel Bernabe participated in a debate on the topic -
"Remembrance and Forgetfulness". He was elected Poet Laureate in
Spanish besting Manuel Bernabe.
4. Manuel Bernabe - is a lyric poet. He was more attractive to the public
in a debate with Balmori because of the melodious words he used. He
defended Olvido.
5. Claro M. Recto - he collected his poems in a book entitled Bajo Los
Cocoteros. One of his writings dedicated to Rizal is "Ante El Martir.”
B. Literature in Filipino
1. Lope K. Santos - "Father of the National language Grammar", he was
also called "apo" of the Tagalog writers. "Banaag at Sikat" was his
masterpiece.
2. Jose Corazon de Jesus - known as Huseng Batute, he was also called
the poet of love in his time. "Ang Isang Punong Kahoy", an elegy, is
believed to be his masterpiece.
3. Armando V. Hernandez - was dubbed "Poet of the Laborers", his
masterpiece is "Ang Panday"
4. Valeriano Hernandez Pena - known as Tandang Anong, he considers
"Nena at Neneng" his masterpiece.
5. Inigo Ed Regalado - a popular storyteller, novelist, and newspaper
man.
C. Literature in English
1. Period of Re-orientation (1898 – 1910)
• It began with the occupation of Manila by the American forces
on August 13, 1898. It extended to the publication of the
College Folio in 1910 when Filipino writers made their first
attempts at expression in the new language.
• The nationalistic and rebellious spirit against the American
occupation also found expression in the Filipino literature in
English of this period. It consisted mostly of articles dealing
with patriotism and nationalism.
• The two periodicals published in English were: El
Renacimiento, founded by Rafael Palma in 1901 and
Philippine Free Press, established in Manila 1905 by R.
McCullough Dick and D. Theo Rogers.
2. Period of Imitation (1910 – 1924)
• It began in 1910 when the College Folio made its appearance
in the University of the Philippines.
• This period was characterized by a strict adherence to the
conventional forms of literature as exemplified in the works of
Longfellow, Hawthorne, Emerson, Tennyson, Thackeray, and
Macaulay, and by a careful observance of the rules of
grammar and rhetoric.
• The publication of magazines and newspapers in English gave
budding writers a chance to see their compositions in print
such as Philippine Review, Independent, Rising Philippines,
and Citizens, in addition to the Philippine Collegian, the UP-
student organ. Philippines Herald became the pioneer Filipino
newspaper in English in 1920.
• Paz Marquez Benitez gained some measure of mastery far
ahead of the period as exemplified in her short story “Dead
Stars.” This story was, for a long time, considered “a model of
perfection in character delineation, local color, plot, and
message.”
• The first book of poems and the first novel in English written
by a Filipino were published during this period - “Never Mind

34
and Other Poems” by Procopio Solidum and “A Child of
Sorrow” by Zoilo M. Galang.
3. Period of Self Discovery and Growth (1925 – 1941)
• Filipino writers had acquired the mastery of English writing.
They now confidently and competently wrote on a lot of
subjects although the old-time favorites of love and youth
persisted. They went into all forms of writing like the novel
and the drama.
• “Azucena” written by Marcelo de Gracia Concepcion became
the first book of Filipino verse to be printed in America.
• The first Filipino biographer to write in English is Carlos
Quirino with his “The Great Malayan.”
• In the essay, the notable writings included “Literature and
Society” by Salvador P. Lopez and “Horizons from My Nipa
Hut” by Francisco P. Icasiano.
Japanese Period (1941 -1945)
• Philippine literature in English came to a halt.
• All newspapers were not circulated in the community except for Tribune and
Philippine Review.
• The weekly Liwayway was placed under strict surveillance until it was
managed by a Japanese named Ishiwara.
• Japanese were able to influence and encourage the Filipino in developing the
vernacular literature.
Forms of Literature During Japanese Period
A. Dramas
Many of plays were reproductions of English plays to Tagalog. A few
playwriters were:
1. Jose Ma. Hernandez – wrote “Panday Pira”
2. Francisco Soc Rodrigo – wrote “Sa Pula, Sa Puti”
3. Clodualdo del Mundo – wrote “Bulaga”
4. Julian Cruz Balmaceda – wrote “Sino ba Kayo?”, “Dahil sa Anak”, and
“Higante ng Patay”
B. Poetries
The common theme of most poems during the Japanese occupation was
nationalism, country, love, and life in the barrios, faith, religion, and the
arts. Three types of poems emerged during this period:
1. Haiku – is a poem of free verse and it is made up of seventeen (17)
syllables divided into three (3) lines. The first line has five, the second
– seven and the third – five. It is allegorical in meaning, short and
covers a wide scope in meaning.
2. Tanaga - it is short but has measure and rhyme. Each line has
seventeen syllables and is also allegorical in meaning.
3. Karaniwang Anyo – it is the usual and common form of poetry.
C. Short Stories
Best short stories in 1945:
1. “Lupang Tibuan” by Narciso Reyes
2. “Uhaw ang Tigang na Lupa” by Liwayway Arceo
3. “Lungsod Ngaun at Dagat-dagatan” by NVM Gonzales

35
Contemporary Period
A. Rebirth of Freedom (1946 – 1970)
• The early post-liberation period was marked by a kind of “struggle of
mind and spirit” posed by the sudden emancipation from the enemy, and
the wild desire to see print.
• There was a proliferation of newspapers:
o Free Press and Morning Sun of Sergio Osmeña Sr.
o Daily Mirror of Joaquin Roces
o Evening News of Ramon Lopez
o Bulletin of Hans Menzi
Some of the Writers and Their Works
• The Voice of the Veteran - a compilation of the best works of some Ex-
USAFFE men like Amante Bigornia, Roman de la Cruz, Ramon de Jesus,
and J.F. Rodriguez.
• Twilight in Tokyo and Passion and Death of the USAFFE by Leon Ma.
Guerrero
• For Freedom and Democracy by S.P. Lopez
• Betrayal in the Philippines by Hernando Abaya
• Seven Hills Away by NVM Gonzales
Some Notable Works
• Heart of the Islands (1947) - a collection of poems by Manuel Viray
• Philippine Cross Section (1950) – a collection of prose and poetry by
Maximo Ramos and Florentino Valeros
• Prose and Poems (1952) by Nick Joaquin
• Philippine Writing (1953) by T.D. Agcaoili
• Philippine Harvest by Amador Daguio
• Horizon Least (1967) – a collection of works by the professors of UE,
mostly in English (short stories, essays, research papers, poem and
drama) by Artemio Patacsil and Silverio Baltazar
• The “Hand of the Enemy” by Kerima Polotan won the Stonehill Award for
the Filipino novel in English in 1961.
• The “Adversary” by Luis V. Teodoro Jr. won the Philippines Free Press
short story award in 1968. His other works such as “The Trail of
Professor Riego” won second prize in the Palanca Memorial Awards for
Literature in 1968 and “The Distant City” in 1970 won the Graphic short
story award in 1970.
B. Period of Activism (1970 – 1972)
• During this period, youth moved to seek reforms because of ills of society.
They rallied on the streets to demand a change in the government.
• Filipino writers utilized their writings to undermine the issues of
exploitations and injustice in the country.
• Literature and mass communication were silenced, but gradually, a
group of Filipino writers took their writing underground and recommitted
themselves to writing short stories, poetry and novels that explored the
social concerns of the times.

36
C. Period of New Society (1972 – 1981)
• All themes in most writings dealt with the development or progress of the
country –like the Green Revolution, family planning, proper nutrition,
environment, drug addiction, etc.
• The New Society tried t0 stop pornography or those writings that had a
negative impact on the morals of the people.
• Ministry of Public Affairs was established by the military government to
supervise the newspapers, books & other publications.
• The government revived old plays such as Cenaculo, Zarzuela, and
Embayoka of the Muslims. Cultural Center of the Philippines, Folk Arts
Theater and Metropolitan Theater were built to have a place for these
plays.
• Kislap and Liwayway became the avenues for Filipino writers to publish
many of their works.
• Poems dealt with patience, regard for native culture, customs, and the
beauties of nature and surroundings.
• Newspapers donned new forms.
• News on economic progress, discipline, culture, tourism, and the like
were favored more than the sensationalized reporting of killings, rape,
and robberies. Filipinos before were hooked in reading magazines and
comics.
D. Period of Third Republic (1981 – 1985)
• The Don Carlos Palanca Memorial Awards for literature, which was
launched in 1950, continued its recognition of the best in the literary
fields –poetry, short story, essays, and the one and three-act plays.
• Poems during this period of the Third Republic were romantic and
revolutionary.
• Many Filipino songs dealt with themes that were true-to-life like those of
grief, poverty, aspirations for freedom, love of God, of country and
fellowmen.

37
Master Works of the World
Figure Speech
1. Alliteration – is the repetition of an initial consonant sound.
Examples:
She sells seashells by the seashore.
Garry grumpily gathered the garbage.
2. Anaphora – is when a word is repeated multiple times within a phrase.
Examples:
He had one apple, one banana, and one mango.
Give me liberty or give me death.
3. Antithesis – is applying a juxtaposition of ideas which are contrasting in a
statement that is balanced.
Examples:
Man proposes, God deposes.
Many are called, but few are chosen. Matthew 22:14
4. Apostrophe – directly addresses an absent person as if he were present or
an inanimate object or an abstract idea as if it had life.
Examples:
O, pardon me, thou bleeding piece of earth. (Julius Caesar, Act III, Scene I)
Come on trousers, you have to fit me.
5. Assonance – is the repetition of identical or similar vowel sounds in a series
of words, phrases, and/or syllables.
Examples:
Clamp your hands and stamp your feet.
Fleet feet sweep by sleeping geese.
6. Chiasmus – is when two sentences are balanced against one another but
with the words reversed.
Examples:
Work to live and do not live to work.
Let us never negotiate out of fear but let us never fear to negotiate. (John F.
Kennedy)
7. Euphemism – is a more polite or gentle way to say something.
Examples:
He passed away. (Pass away is the euphemism for die.)
I am letting you go. (Letting you go is the euphemism for fired.)
8. Hyperbole – is a term which uses an exaggeration to add a more dramatic
meaning to the sentence.
Examples:
She cried so long that she made a lake.
I’m so hungry, I could eat a horse.
9. Irony – is a statement which conveys the exact opposite meaning of what is
literally said.
Examples:
A pilot has a fear of heights.
The police station gets robbed.

38
10. Litotes – is an understatement which applies a negative to express the
meaning of the affirmative.
Examples:
He is no fool. (He is smart)
There isn’t anything I won’t eat when I’m hungry. (I will eat anything when
I’m hungry.)
11. Metaphor – is an implied comparison between two different things which
share something in common.
Examples:
His words cut deeper than a knife.
I am the good shepherd, … and I lay down my life for the sheep. (John 10:14-
15)
12.Metonymy – is when a phrase is replaced with another which has a similar
meaning or used to describe something in an indirect manner.
Examples:
He is a man of cloth. (man of the church)
I remain loyal to the crown. (power/authority)
13. Onomatopoeia – is word which resembles the sound it is describing.
Examples:
The lion roared as it chased its prey.
I hear the snap of a twig.
14. Oxymoron – is when two words which appear to contradict one another but
when used together make a true and sometimes positive statement.
Examples:
I was like a silent scream.
She showed a cruel kindness.
15. Paradox – is a statement that contradicts itself.
Examples:
My weakness is my strength.
I must be cruel to be kind. (Hamlet by William Shakespeare)
16. Personification – is when an object or idea is given human attributes.
Examples:
The angry clouds marched across the sky.
The lonely lighthouse vigilantly shined its light to warn ships away from its
rocky coast.
17. Pun – is a play of words that are similar in sound but have different
meaning.
Examples:
I was struggling to figure out how lightning works, but then it struck me.
A chicken crossing the road is truly poultry in motion.
18. Simile – is a comparison of two things using “as” and “like”.
Examples:
I wondered lonely as a cloud.
The sun was like a yellow marble in the sky.
19. Synecdoche – is a statement in which only part of something is expressed to
relate to the whole.
Examples:
Jack bought a new set of wheels. (it means car)
Man cannot live by bread alone. (it means food)

39
20. Understatement – is a statement which is made to be less important that
what is actually being conveyed.
Examples:
It rained a bit more than usual. (Describing an area being flooded by heavy
rainfall.)
He is not too thin. (Describing an obese person)
Sumerian, Egyptian and Hebrew Literature
A. Summer Literature
Sumerian literature constitutes the earliest known corpus of recorded
literature, including the religious writings and other traditional stories
maintained by the Sumerian civilization and largely preserved by the later
Akkadian and Babylonian empires (Wikipedia).
• The Sumerian civilization first developed writing around 3400 B.C.,
when they began making markings on clay tablets in a script known
as cuneiform.
• Two of their oldest known literary works are:
o Kesh Temple Hymn - is an ancient ode to the Kesh temple and
the deities that inhabited it.
o Instructions of Shuruppak - is a piece of “wisdom literature”
that takes the form of sagely advice supposedly handed down
from the Sumerian king to his son teaching him how to
behave.
• Epic of Gilgamesh is history’s oldest known fictional story. It is about
the quests and adventures of Gilgamesh, the mythological hero-king
of Uruk and his half-wild friend, Enkidu, and then the search of
Gilgamesh for the secret of immortality after death of his friend.
B. Egyptian Literature
Ancient Egyptian literature comprises a wide array of narrative and poetic
forms. Their literature depicts the peoples’ life, culture, and beliefs. The
ancient Egyptians wrote their works on papyrus as well as on tombs, stele,
obelisks, temple, and more, and they viewed literature as a source of
spiritual nourishment and a unique way to elevate style of expression.
• Most of Egyptian literature was written in hieroglyphics or hieratic
script. Hieroglyphics, which employs characters in the form of
pictures, were used on monuments such as tombs, obelisks, stele,
and temples while hieratic script was used in writing on papyrus and
ceramics.
• The Egyptian Book of the Dead is a collection of spells which enable
the soul of the deceased to navigate the afterlife.
• The Story of Sinube is considered one of the finest works of ancient
Egyptian literature. It is a story of a man who fled his duties in Egypt
and became a Bedouin in an Asiatic tribe.
C. Hebrew Literature
Hebrew literature is chiefly a religious literature. It consists of ancient,
medieval, and modern writings in the Hebrew language.
• The Hebrew Bible is called the Tanakh after the first letter of the
name of the three sections of which it is composed: the Torah
(instruction or law called Pentateuch), the Nevi'im (Prophets), and the
Kethuvim (Writings).
• Mishna is the primary rabbinic codification of oral laws as derived
from the Torah. It comprises six major sections or orders (sedarim)
that contain 63 tractates (massekhtaot).

40
• Talmud is collection of ancient teachings and the primary source of
Jewish religious law and theology.
Persian and Arabic Literature
A. Persian Literature
The Persian Literature is among the oldest in the world, spanning thousands
of years, and has influenced the literary works of many other cultures.
• During the old Iranian period, literature was dominated by religious
writings and the most significant was the Avesta, bible of
Zoroastrianism. The bible contains cosmogony, law, and liturgy, and
the teachings of the prophet Zoroaster.
• Among the great writers are:
o Omar Khayyam – he wrote “Rubaiyat”, a verse form consisting
of four-line stanzas. Rubaiyat is a poem of high divine and
spiritual meaning.
o Hafez - is best known for his poems. He mostly wrote in the
literary genre of lyric poetry or ghazals.
o Sadi – he was the author of the classic literary works “Bustan”
(translated as The Orchard) and “Gulistan” (translated as The
Rose Garden). These books contain teachings and stories
about love, religion, and other aspects of life.
• Persian Poetry
Classical Persian poetry is always rhymed. The principal verse forms:
o Qasida is a long poem in monorhyme, usually of a panegyric,
didactic or religious nature.
o Masnavi, written in rhyming couplets, is employed for heroic,
romantic, or narrative verse.
o Ghazal is a poetic form consisting of rhyming couplet and
refrain and it is about pain of loss or separation and the
beauty of love.
o Rubaiyat – is a poetry style that is used to describe Persian
quatrain.
o Divan – is a collection of poets ghazals and other verse
arranged alphabetically according to rhymes.
• The greatest and most influential work is the “Shahnameh”, the
Persian Book of Kings, written by the poet Abolqasem Ferdowsi
between 977-1010 CE. It is also the longest work of epic poetry ever
written, composed of more than 60,000 verses.
B. Arabic Literature
Arabian Literature is rich and varied, mostly made of poems, anecdotes, tales
or romances, historical accounts, and philosophies.
• Arabs possessed a highly develop poetry transmitted orally from
generation to generation.
• The written literature began to be known with the collection of
Qur’an, the sacred book of Islam.
• The three periods of written literature:
o Umayyad period (A.D. 661 -750) - Arabic prose was limited
primarily to grammatical treatises, commentaries on the
Koran and the compiling of stories about Mohammed and his
companions.
o Abbasid period (A.D. 750 - 1258) – it is regarded as the
“Greatest Period of Development and Achievement.” An Arabic
prose sprinkled with poetry and utilized rhyme prose known
as saj, a rhymed prose.

41
▪ Arabian Nights or The Thousand and One Nights
contains inventive type of folk literature, which based
on the recitation of rawis.
o Modern period (19th Century – present) – Arabic Literature
declined during the Ottoman Turkish domination; however,
the Renaissance period took place, so then Arabs revived their
classical genres and they came into contact to Western
Literature and Civilization. Short story and novel came to
being in this period.
• Kahlil Gibran influenced modern Arabic literature and composed
inspirational pieces in English, including “The Prophet”.
Indian Literature
Indian Literature is one of the oldest and richest literatures in the world. In ancient
times, the literary work used to be imparted orally. The literature is influenced by a
religious doctrine karma, the chain of good and bad action and their inevitable
consequences, which result to the repeated birth and death of the soul.
A. Sanskrit Literature
• Literature is written in Sanskrit language.
• Texts were produced about 16th century BC by people known as Aryans,
cattle herders who were originally nomadic and who established
kingdoms in North India.
• Vedas, the book of knowledge, is composed in Old Sanskrit by Aryan
poets. It constitutes the fundamental scripture of the Hindu religion and
is used as sacramental rites of Hinduism. The texts which make up the
Four Vedas are:
o Rig-Veda – is the Veda of Praise
o Sama-Veda – is the book of chants
o Yajur-Veda – is the book of prayers
o Antharva-Veda – is the book of spells
• Brahmanas is a prose text composed by Hindu priest that discusses the
solemn sacrificial rituals as well as the commitment on their meaning.
• Arankayas constitutes the philosophy behind ritual sacrifice of the
ancient Hindu sacred texts, the Vedas and it was composed by people
who meditated in the woods.
• Upanishads is the India’s oldest philosophical treaties and forms the
foundation of major schools of Hindu philosophy. It was composed by a
group of sages who questioned the usefulness of ritual religion. It
consists of 108 dialogues between teachers and their students about the
individual soul’s unity.
• Tipitaka, “The Three Baskets”, is the major religious text of Buddhism and
includes the teachings of Buddha.
• Mahabharata is the great epic of the Bharata Dynasty. It was written by
Vyasa. It is a tale of dispute between two branches of the Bharata clans
over the right to rule the kingdom.
• Ramayana, “The Way of Rama” was written by the poet Valkimi. It tells the
story of the hero Rama, prince of Ayodhya and incarnation of the god
Vishnu Ramayana.
B. Classical Literature
• It started with the flowering of the Gupta dynasty.
• Literature was nurtured by the caste system.
• Kavya was the major form of classical literature in Sanskrit.
• Kalidasa was a Classical Sanskrit author who is often considered ancient
India's greatest playwright and dramatist. She wrote “Shakuntala”, a

42
poetic drama that tells the story of a love affair between a king and a
woodland maiden Shakuntala.
• Panchatantra, “The Five Strategies” is written by Vishnusharman and it is
a collection of stories in prose and verse, which features animals as the
characters, teaching lessons on human conduct.
• Puranas is a genre of mythological narratives. It contains narratives about
the history of the Universe from creation to destruction and the genealogies
of kings, heroes, sages, and deities.
C. Medieval Literature
• Different regions began to develop its own distinctive culture. Indian
languages were influenced by Islamic religion, Persian, and Arabic
languages. Unique version of local myths, legends, romances and epics
emerged.
• Bhakti were authors who belong to Hindu movement who wrote lyric poetry
devoted to Hindu gods and goddesses.
D. Colonial Period to Independence
• British became a colonial power and they introduced English education for
upper-class Indians so that they can serve the colony. They also introduced
the printing press, which made possible for the establishment of
newspapers and journals.
• Rabindranath Tagore is an innovative poet of the Bengali language who
drew on traditional forms of poetry and performance. He is the first non-
European winner of the Nobel Prize award for literature. Gitanjali, “Song
Offerings” is his best-known work, which is a collection of poems written
in 1910.
E. Independence Onwards
• Indian independence from Britain in 1947 marked the start of modern
Indian literature.
Chinese Literature
Chinese literature reflects the political and social history of China and the impact of
powerful religions that came from within and outside the country. Its tradition goes
back thousands of years and has often inspired by philosophical questions about
meaning of life, how to live ethically in society, and how to live in spiritual harmony
with the natural order of the universe.
A. Shang Dynasty (Development of Chinese Writing)
• People of this dynasty practiced a religion based on the belief that nature
was inhabited by many powerful gods and spirits. Among the significant
advances of this period were hieroglyphic writing on bronze wares and
oracle bones, decimal system, a twelve-month calendar, and a system of
writing consisting of 3,000 characters.
B. Zhou Dynasty (Basic Philosophical and Religious Literature)
• The great literary works of philosophy and religion that became the basis
for Chinese religious and social belief stem from what is called the Spring
and Autumn Period (770-476) and the Warring States Period (475-221).
• This period was also known as One Hundred Schools of Thought because
of simultaneous emergence of religions and philosophies. Among them
were:
o Lao Tzu – he is the proponent of Taoism and stressed freedom,
simplicity, and the mystical contemplation of nature
o Confucius – he is the founder of Confucianism and emphasized a
code of social conduct and stressed the importance of discipline,
morality, and knowledge.

43
• The Book of Songs (Shih Ching) first compiled in the 6th century B.C. and
it is the oldest collection of Chinese poetry and the model of poetic
expression and moral insight.
• The Parables of the Ancient Philosophers illustrate the Taoist belief and
the humanism of the Chinese thought.
C. Qin Dynasty (Literary Disaster and Legalism)
• This period saw unification of China and the strengthening of central
government.
• This dynasty standardized the written Classical Language that was
meant to help control the society.
• Established a philosophical school that was called Legalism. The
Legalists advocated government by a system of laws that rigidly
prescribed punishments and rewards for specific behaviors and they
believed the strict law was needed for social order.
D. Han Dynasty (Scientific and Historical Texts)
• This period was one of the most glorious eras of Chinese history and was
marked by the introduction of Buddhism from India.
• Confucianism was revived. Confucian texts were rewritten and
republished.
• The era’s major contributions were historical texts and scientific works.
Sima Qian wrote “Historical Records” that is a major history concerning
the overall history of China from before the Shang Dynasty until the Han
Dynasty.
E. Tang Dynasty (Early Woodblock Printing and Poetry)
• Fine arts and literature flourished during this period.
• The greatest contribution of this dynasty in Chinese literature was
poetry.
o Li Bai was one of the greatest romantic poets of ancient China.
o Du Fu was one of the greatest realist poets of China.
• Tang poets, inspired by scenes of natural beauty, wrote poems about the
fragile blossoms in spring, the falling of leaves in autumn, or the
changing shape of the moon.
F. Song Dynasty (Early Woodblock Printing, Travel Literature, Poetry,
Scientific Texts, and the Neo-Confucian Classics)
• This period was characterized by delicacy and refinement although
inferior in terms of literary arts but great in learning.
• The Five Classics and Four Books together create the foundation of
Confucianism. They were the basis of the civil examination in imperial
China and can be considered the Confucian canon.
o Five Classics
▪ Shijing - Book of Odes/Poetry
▪ Shujing - Book of Documents
▪ Yijing - Book of Changes
▪ Lijing - Book of Rites
▪ Chunqui - Spring and Autumn Annals
o Four Books
▪ Doctrine of the Mean - is attributed to Zisi, Confucius’
grandson, and deals with how to maintain perfect balance
and harmony in one's life.
▪ Great Learning – is a guide for moral self-cultivation.
▪ Mencius - is a collection of conversations Mencius had
with Kongzi.
▪ Analects - is a collection of Kongzi's teachings and
discussions with disciples.

44
G. Yuan Dynasty (Drama and Great Fictional Novels)
• Dramatic operatic theaters with human actors speaking in vernacular
language was a favorite form of entertainment and some of China’s best
dramatic scripts were written in this dynasty.
• Guan Hanqing is regarded as one of the best playwrights of the times. He
wrote “Midsummer Snow” that was one of the most popular drama
pieces.
• The Romance of the Western Chamber was written by Wang Shifu. It is
considered one of the best romantic dramas ever written in China.
• Two of the greatest novels in Chinese Literature were These are Water
Margin and The Romance of the Three Kingdoms.
H. Ming Dynasty (Novels)
• This period was a time of great ferment and change in Chinese literature.
Literature and literary style had become fossilized by the insistence of the
scholars on a rigid style and adherence to the Chinese classics.
• The most important literary form invented in the Ming period was the
vernacular novel and it was written in vernacular rather than Classical
Chinese. The three most famous Ming novels are:
o Journey to the West (Hsi-yu chi, also called, The Monkey King) is
the most read and most famous classic Chinese novel.
o Tale of the Water Margin (Shui-hu chuan) - was the most
influential and popular novel of the Ming period.
o The Plum in the Golden Vase (Chin- p'ing mei)
I. Qing Dynasty (Novels and Pre-modern Literature)
• In the 19th century, foreign literature became better known, and
modernistic literature was developed near the end of the era.
• The Dream of the Red Chamber, also called The Story of the Stone, is the
novel written by Cao Zhan in the 18th century that is generally
considered to be the greatest of all Chinese novels and among the
greatest in world literature.
J. Modern Era (Westernized Literature)
• Literature became westernized, and the Classical Language wasn’t used.
• There was a lot of politically oriented literature printed. Scholars had
access to foreign literature, and many students studied abroad.
Japanese Literature
Japanese literature spans a period of almost 2 millennia of writing. Writings are
influenced by Chinese literature. Japanese are generally based on important in
political and cultural events.
A. Nara period
• Japanese literature traces its beginnings to oral traditions that were first
recorded in written form in the early 18th century
• Kojiki (Record of Ancient Matters) is the oldest surviving book dealing
with ancient Japanese history. This tells about the creation of the world,
the god, the goddess of the mythological period and facts about the
earliest history of Japan.
• Nihon Shoki (Chronicle of Japan) is the second oldest history book of
classical Japan
• Fudoki (Records of Wind and Water) are ancient reports on provincial
culture, geography, and oral tradition presented to the reigning monarchs
of Japan.

45
• The most brilliant literary product of this period was the Man’yoshu
(Collection of Ten Thousand Leaves).
• Tanka is a verse form comprising 31 syllables (5-7- 5-7-7).
• In 905, Kokinwakashu or Kokinshu (Collection of Poems from Ancient and
Modern Times) was published as the first poetry anthology commissioned
by an emperor.
B. Heian period
• The period is considered Japan’s “Golden Age,” a high point in Japanese
culture that greatly influenced art and architecture.
• Murasaki Shikibu wrote the 54-chapter novel entitled Genjimonogatari
(Tale of Genji).
• Sei Shonagon wrote Makura no Soshi (Pillow Book).
• Konjaku Monogatari (Tales of a Time That Is Now Past) a Japanese
collection of over one thousand tales written during this period. It added
new dimension to literature.
C. Kamakura- Muromachi period
• Works from this period are notable for its more somber tone compared to
the works of previous eras, with themes of life and death, simple
lifestyles, and redemption through killing.
• Heike Mono-gatari (Tales of Heike) depicts the rise and fall of the Taira
with the spotlight on their wars with the Minamoto clan (Genji).
• Shin Kokinwakashu (New Collection of Poems from Ancient and Modern
Times) is an anthology of poetry commissioned by retired Emperor Go
Toba.
• Kamo No Chomei wrote Hojoki (An Account of My Hut).
• Yoshida Kenko wrote Tsurezuregusa (Essay of Idleness), a collection of
essays.
• Shobogenzo (Treasury of the True Dharma Eye) is collection of works
written in Japanese by the 13th century Japanese Buddhist monk and
marked the development in Zen thought.
• Taiheiki (Chronicle of the Great Peace) is a Japanese historical epic.
• Fushikaden (Flowering Spirit) is a brilliant essay on dramatic art written
by Zeami.
D. Edo period
• Early Edo prose literature encompassed a diverse range of subjects -
didactic tracts, travel guides, essays, satires, and picaresque fiction.
Later Edo fiction, called gesaku, was mostly comic or satirical in nature,
although it also included long Confucian didactic tales.
• Renga, a japanese linked-verse poetry in which two or more poets
supplied alternating sections of a poem, became a favorite past time.
• Matsuo Basho is the most famous Haiku poet. Haiku is a poetic form of
17 syllables in 5-7-5.
E. Meiji period
• This period took the first steps toward developing a modern literature.
• Ukigumo (Drifting Clouds) is often called the first modern Japanese novel
and was written by Futabatei Shimei.
F. Taisho Period
• This period is characterized by a liberal arts ideology, individualism, a
democratic spirit, aestheticism, and anti-naturalism. In the latter half of
the period, the liberal arts ideology was gradually replaced by socialism.

46
Greek and Roman Literature
Greek Literature
A. Ancient Greek Literature
a. Archaic
• Poetry was intended to be sung or recited, an outcome of an oral
tradition, delivered at festivals.
• Homer wrote “Iliad and Odyssey.” The Iliad tells the story of the
Greek struggle to rescue Helen, a Greek queen, from her Trojan
captors. The Odyssey takes the fall of the city of Troy as its
starting point and crafts a new epic around the struggle of one of
those Greek warriors, the hero Odysseus.
• Some greatest writers during this period are:
▪ Aesop - a Greek fabulist and storyteller credited with a
number of fables now collectively known as Aesop's
Fables.
▪ Hesiod - father of Greek didactic poetry.
▪ Sappho - a Greek poet known for her lyric poetry, written
to be sung while accompanied by a lyre.
b. Classical
• Oral recitation of poetry, as well as lyric poetry, morphed into
drama.
• Tragedy was developed by three of the greatest tragedians in the
history of the theater:
▪ Aeschylus – father of tragedy. His most famous work is
“Prometheus Bound” which tells the myth of the Titan
punished by Zeus for giving humanity the gift of fire.
▪ Sophocles – his most famous is “Oedipus the King”
(Oedipus Rex), which is known for its impressive
construction and use of dramatic devices.
▪ Euripides - his most famous tragedies, which reinvent
Greek myths and probe the darker side of human nature,
include Medea, The Bacchae, Hippolytus, Alcestis, and The
Trojan Women.
• Among the greatest philosophers are:
▪ Plato - his most famous work was “The Republic”, a book
on the nature and value of justice.
▪ Aristotle - his many works include Nichomachean Ethics (a
treatise on ethics and morality), Physics, and Poetics.
c. Hellenistic
• Greek poetry flourished, and drama was represented by the New
Comedy.
• Among the greatest poets are:
▪ Callimachus – a Greek poet who wrote “Aetia” (Causes),
which revealed his fascination for the great Greek past.
▪ Theocritus - a Sicilian poet and the creator of Ancient
Greek pastoral poetry.
▪ Apollonius of Rhodes – a Greek epic poet, best known as
the author of the epic poem “The Argonautica”, the
popular myth of Jason and the Argonauts’ quest for the
Golden Fleece.
d. Roman
• Literature in Greek in the Roman period contributed significant
works to the subjects of poetry, comedy, history, and tragedy.

47
B. Byzantine literature
• Byzantine literature combined Greek and Christian civilization on the
common foundation of the Roman political system. It possesses four
primary cultural elements: Greek, Christian, Roman, and Oriental.
C. Modern Greek Literature
• Greek literature reflects the evolution of European modernism in such
various forms as French symbolism and surrealism or British American
experiment in narrative techniques.
• Erotokritos, a romance composed by Vikentios, is the famous work of this
period.
Roman Literature
• Roman literature was greatly influenced by Greek.
A. Golden Age
• Poetry is the most famous type of Roman literature. The three most
well-known Roman poets are:
▪ Virgil - is known for writing the epic poem the “Aeneid.” The
Aeneid tells the story of Aeneas's journey in search of the land
where he is destined to build the city that will one day become
the great Roman Empire.
▪ Horace - is a great lyric poet and satirist and is known for a
collection of lyric poems called the Odes.
▪ Ovid – his famous work was the epic “Metamorphoses.” It tells
the history of the world from creation to when Julius Caesar
was made a god. He was also famous for writing love poems.
• Julius Caesar wrote some historical works including the De Bello
Gallico, which told the story of his military campaigns of Gaul.
B. Silver Age
• Among the well-known authors in this era are:
▪ Seneca is known for his philosophical works, and for his
plays, which are all tragedies.
▪ Lucan – wrote the epic poem, Pharsalia. Pharsalia, also known
as De Bello Civili, details the civil war between Julius Caesar
and the forces of the Roman Senate led by Pompey the Great.
▪ Statius - is a poet known for his epic of twelve books, Thebaid
and Silvae, a collection of Latin occasional poetry.
▪ Martial – is poet who brought the Latin epigram. He has been
called the greatest Latin epigrammatist and he is considered
the creator of the modern epigram.
▪ Tacitus – is a Roman orator and one of the greatest prose
stylists who wrote in the Latin language.
▪ Juvenal – is a great satirist and he became famous for his
savage wit and biting descriptions of life in Rome.
American Literature
A. The Colonial Period
• The writings of this time centered on religious, practical, or historical
themes.
• The most influential writers of the Colonial Period include John
Winthrop, Cotton Mather, Benjamin Franklin, and Anne Bradstreet.

48
B. The Revolutionary Age (1765–1790)
• This period is rich with political writing.
• Some of the greatest documents of American history were authored. In
1776, Thomas Paine authored “Common Sense” and Thomas Jefferson
wrote “The Declaration of Independence.”
C. The Early National Period (1775–1828)
• The writers of this new American literature wrote in the English style, but
the settings, themes, and characters were authentically American.
• The Contrast is the first American comedy written for the stage and was
written by Royall Tyler in 1787.
• The Power of Sympathy is the first American Novel and was written by
William Hill in 1789.
• Edgar Allan Poe is one of the notable writers in this period and he is best
known for his poetry and short stories, particularly his tales of mystery
and the macabre.
D. The Romantic Period or The American Renaissance (1828–1865)
• This period is also known as Age of Transcendentalism.
• The writers of this period produced works of originality and excellence
that helped shape the ideas, ideals, and literary aims of many American
writers.
• Some notable writers are:
▪ Ralph Waldo Emerson became the most widely known man of
letters in America, establishing himself as a prolific poet, essayist,
popular lecturer, and an advocate of social reforms.
▪ Henry Wadsworth Longfellow was one of the most widely known
and best-loved American poets.
▪ Nathaniel Hawthorne was an American novelist, dark romantic,
and short story writer.
▪ Harriet Beecher Stowe is best known for her novel Uncle Tom's
Cabin.
E. The Realistic Period (1865–1900)
• The major form of literature produced in this era was realistic fiction.
• The major writers of the Realistic Period include:
▪ Mark Twain – his real name is Samuel Langhorne Clemens. He
wrote “The Adventures of Tom Sawyer” (1876) and “Adventures of
Huckleberry Finn” (1885).
▪ Kate Chopin - is a writer best known for her stories about the
inner lives of sensitive, daring women. She wrote “The
Awakening.”
F. The Naturalist Period (1900–1914)
• These writings are often frank, crude, and tragic.
• Naturalist writers such as Frank Norris, Theodore Dreiser, and Jack
London created some of the most powerfully raw novels in American
literary history.
G. The Modern Period (1914–1939)
• The American Modernists experimented with subject matter, form, and
style and produced achievements in all literary genres.
• Among the well-known poets are:
▪ E.E. Cummings was an innovative poet known for his lack of
stylistic and structural conformity.
▪ Robert Frost was an American poet and winner of four Pulitzer
Prizes. His famous works include “Fire and Ice,” “Mending Wall,”
“Birches,” “Out,” “Nothing Gold Can Stay” and “Home Burial.”

LET Reviewer - General Education

LET Reviewer - General Education

Empfohlen

Empfohlen

Weitere ähnliche Inhalte

Was ist angesagt?

Was ist angesagt? (20)

Ähnlich wie LET Reviewer - General Education

Ähnlich wie LET Reviewer - General Education (20)

Mehr von Ramil Gallardo

Mehr von Ramil Gallardo (20)

Kürzlich hochgeladen

Kürzlich hochgeladen (20)

LET Reviewer - General Education