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Cross-Cultural Pragmatics and CCP Research




      Dr. Phalangchok Wanphet
      PhD (English Language and Linguistics: Wisconsin)
                                                   1
Scope of Today‟s Discussion

I assume that you are well familiar with the following areas in
general pragmatics:
   1.   Deixis
   2.   Conversational implicature
   3.   Presupposition
   4.   Speech acts
   5.   Conversational structure

   Our discussion will go beyond these subtopics

                                                          2
Scope of Today‟s Discussion
1.   Cognitive approach to CCP
2.   Politeness theory: Sociological approach to CCP
3.   Pragmatic approach to cross-cultural communication
4.   Conversation Analysis-based CCP research




                                                    3
Cross-Cultural Pragmatics

• What is of interest to CCP researchers?
• Why is it worth studying and conducting research on CCP?




                                                     4
“CCP aims at understandings the extent to which non-
shared knowledge affects and modifies the retrieval of
intended meaning”

• Mismatches
   – Intention and interpretation
   – Limited mutual understandings
   – Cultural biases



                                                         5
The need to study CCP
“…individuals from different societies or communities
interact according to their own pragmatic norms, often
resulting in a clash of expectations and, ultimately,
misperceptions about the other group. The misperceptions
are typically two-way; that is, each group misperceives the
other.

In an age in which cross-cultural interaction is the norm not
only across societies but also within them, different rules of
speaking have the potential to cause stereotypes, prejudice,
and discrimination against entire groups of people.”      6
What makes you understand text and talk?

1. Language itself
2. Context (whatever comes with language)
     •   Non-language
     •   Other-than-language artifacts




                                            7
Did you just say “Context”?
What is „context‟?
      Context vs. understanding
            For instance:
            a)     “No Bicycles”
            b)     “Could you please check the bird”

Guess what each expression means!


                                                       8
To sum up

Language



                  Understanding



Context
                                  9
Culture functions as a context!

             Culture


             Comm.




            Language

                                  10
In other words, ...
1. Communication take place within a context.

2. In a transactional model of communication,
   conversants reply primarily on their own culture when
   communicating with other and when interpreting what
   is communicated by other.

3. It is reasonable to claim that, for communication to be
   successful, conversants should have as much shared
   elements as possible.                               11
Model

• Link




                 12
Again, remember seeing this slide?

“CCP aims at understandings the extent to
which non-shared knowledge affects and
modifies the retrieval of intended meaning”

• Mismatches
  – Intention and interpretation
  – Limited mutual understandings
  – Cultural biases
                                              13
Cross-cultural communication equates …

•   Misunderstanding
•   Unsuccessful communication
•   Delayed mutual understandings
•   Harder face maintenance
•   Foreseen, thus avoided, problem




                                      14
Aspects of CCP

               Linguistic

               Cognitive
CCP
                Sociological


               Interactional
                               15
It is all about misunderstanding!

How can we as CCP researchers tackle the intercultural
problem systematically?
   1. Linguistic analysis of causes
   2. Cognitive analysis of causes
   3. Sociological analysis of causes
   4. Interactional analysis of causes



                                                  16
1. Linguistic analysis of CC misunderstanding

                      What is the possible cause?
                         “Language proficiency”
                         “Nature of language”
                         “Semantics”
                         “Linguistic typology”
                         “Metaphor”
                         “Culture-dependent
                      language use”
                                             17
2. Cognitive analysis of CC misunderstanding
                    • Misunderstandings are
                      caused NOT by difficulty in
                      drawing the intended
                      implicature, but by lack of
                      access to the correct
                      explicature of the utterance.




                                              18
2. Cognitive analysis of CC misunderstanding

1)
      A:    It‟s cold in here.
      B:    I can turn off the AC now.

2) Phone rings
      D picks up the phone.
      D:    Good morning.
      C:    Hi, is Jeff in?
      D:    One sec please.               19
2. Cognitive analysis of CC misunderstanding

3) Phone rings
  F picks up the phone.
  F: Hello
  E: Hi, is Nate there?
  F: Yes, hold on
  E:             Oh, no, I just wanted to see where he is
  F: Ohhh OK

                                                     20
2. Cognitive analysis of CC misunderstanding
1. Speaker‟s intention is crucial in this domain.
2. The addressee‟s recognition of the speaker‟s
   communicative intention allows him to make inferences
   in order to understand the speaker‟s informative
   intention.

   – Informative intention: the intention to inform an audience of
     something.
   – Communicative intention: the intention to inform an audience of
     one‟s informative intention.
                                                              21
2. Cognitive analysis of CC misunderstanding

4)
      Dad:         Ben, please go and brush your teeth!
      Son:         Dad, I‟m not sleepy

The son‟s recognition of his dad‟s communicative
intention allows him to make inferences in order to
understand his dad‟s informative intention.


                                                      22
2. Cognitive analysis of CC misunderstanding

Grice‟s Maxim of Relevance

“human cognition is attracted by relevant information
and is able to make a sharp between relevant
information and irrelevant information”.




                                                   23
3. Sociological analysis of CC misunderstanding
                      1. Politeness theory
                         a) Face
                         b) Positive face and negative
                            face
                         c) FTA‟s


                      2. Preference Organization
                         a) Preferred (affiliative) action
                         b) Dispreferred (disaffliative)
                            action
                                                   24
1. Politeness theory

a. Face
Face NOT as a physical
feature or body part!




                                     25
Or as known and used in facial expressions




                                         26
But face as a social and interactional concept.




                                            27
Face and Face Maintenance

• Face is defined as “the positive social value a person
  effectively claims for himself by the line others assume
  he has taken during a particular contact” (Goffman,
  1959).

• Face is “the public self-image that every member want
  to claim for himself” (Brown & Levinson, 1987).
Face
Positive face
“the positive consistent self-
image or personality
(crucially including the desire
that this self-image be
appreciated and approved of)
claimed by interactants”.

Keywords: Being valued,
recognized, considered part of
the group
                                   29
Threats to positive face (H)
• Expressions of approval, criticism, complains,
  reprimands, insults, accusations,
• Contradictions or disagreements, challenges
• Expression of violent emotion
• Mention of taboo topics
• Bringing bad news about hearer
• Raising about dangerously emotional or divisive topics
• Blatant non-cooperation in an activity

                                                      30
Threats to positive face (S)
•   Apologies
•   Acceptance of compliment
•   Breakdown of physical control over body
•   Self-humiliation
•   Confessions
•   Emotion leakage




                                              31
Face
Negative face
“the basic claim to
territories, personal
preserves, rights to non-
distraction, i.e., to freedom
of action and freedom from
imposition”

Keywords: Independence,
freedom, lack of restrictions
                                   32
Threats to negative face (H)
•   Orders and requests
•   Suggestions, advice
•   Remindings
•   Threats, warnings, dares
•   Offers
•   Promises
•   Compliments, expressions of envy or admiration
•   Expression of strong emotions toward H

                                                     33
Threats to negative face (S)
•   Expressing thanks
•   Acceptance of H‟s thanks or apology
•   Excuses
•   Acceptance of offers
•   Unwilling promises and offers




                                             34
Maximizing both faces
• When we are engaged in social encounters, we do face
  activities unavoidably.

• Participants want both positive face and negative face to
  be maintained and mitigated.

• We can damage not only our own positive face but
  negative face also.

• Some acts can damage both positive face and negative
                                                     35
  face.
Diagram proposed by Brown and Levinson




                                     36
2. Preference Organization
1. Preferred (affiliative) action
2. Dispreferred (disaffiliative) action




                                          37
Adjacency Pairs



                         Acceptance

Invitation

                               Denial

                                        38
Adjacency Pairs



                          Agreement

Assessment

                        Disagreement

                                  39
Adjacency Pairs



                    Acceptance

Offer

                          Denial

                                   40
Adjacency Pairs



                         Acceptance

Permission

                               Refusal

                                         41
Adjacency Pairs



                        Granting

Request

                        Rejection

                                    42
Extracts
A:   T‟s-tsuh beautiful day out isn‟t it?
B:   Yeh it‟s just gorgeous…

Q:   Why don‟t you come and see me some tim e
R:                                     I would like to.

B:   Do you want a ride? It is snowin badly out there!
D:   That w‟d be great, thanks.

                                                         43
Extracts
A:   You coming down early?
B:   Well, I got a lot of things to do before gettin
     cleared tomorrow. I don‟t know . I w- probably
     won‟t be too early.

P:   How about going out for a drink tonight?
R:   (0.2) tuh-uh sorry b‟d I can‟ make it = c‟z Jill has
     invoted some‟ve her friends over. Perhaps some
     other time.

                                                     44
Extracts

A:   Uh if you‟d care to come over and visit a little
     while this morning I‟ll give you a cup of coffee.
B:   hehh Well that‟s awfully sweet of you,
     I don‟t think I can make it this morning
     Hh uhm I‟m running an ad in the paper and-and
     uh I have to stay near the phone.




                                                         45
Extracts
P:   God izn it dreary.
     (0.6)
R:    Y‟ know I don‟t think-
P:    hh it‟s warm though,




                                  46
4. Interactional analysis of CC misunderstanding




                                             47
Misunderstandings in CC interaction

Some misunderstandings may not be predicted
in advance. The chance is greater when one
does not follow conversational routines other
follow. Several studies claims that
conversational routines are culture-specific.




                                           48
Misunderstandings in CC interaction
1. When to talk
  a) Silence can be highly valued.
  b) Some culture believe it inappropriate to strangers.
  c) Familiarity vs. chance and amount of talk.
  d) Some don‟t talk when expected to by other
     groups.
  e) Stereotype of „other‟
       a) Talking „other‟
       b) Quiet „other‟
                                                       49
Misunderstandings in CC interaction
2. What to say
  a) Some culture never ask question „why”.
  b) Some culture rarely ask questions.
  c) Talk and learn through story telling.
  d) (Not) Talking about personal experience or emotional
     involvement
  e) Downplaying and upgrading utterance



                                                    50
Misunderstandings in CC interaction
3. Pacing and pausing
   1. Speed rate
   2. Wait time to be the next speaker before concluding
      the previous one has more to say
   3. Wait time between turns




                                                    51
Misunderstandings in CC interaction
4. Listenership
   1. Eye gaze used and broken by speaker and listener
   2. Steady eye contact during the talk
   3. Showing attention and encouragement




                                                     52
Misunderstandings in CC interaction
5. Intonation
   1. Intention and Interpretation
   2. Rudeness
   3. Stereotyping




                                              53
Misunderstandings in CC interaction

6. Formulaicity and poetic usage
  – Frequency
  – Meaning
  – Cultural context




                                            54
Misunderstandings in CC interaction
7. Indirectness
      “ideally, people should say what they mean and
people should be accountable only for what they say in
words”.


  1. Straight to the point
  2. Necessity of small talk
  3. Never-say-NO talk

                                                     55
Misunderstandings in CC interaction

8. Cohesion and coherence
  1. Repetition
  2. Syntactic position of main point.
  3. Location of new information and old information




                                                  56

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Intercultural Pragmatics

  • 1. Cross-Cultural Pragmatics and CCP Research Dr. Phalangchok Wanphet PhD (English Language and Linguistics: Wisconsin) 1
  • 2. Scope of Today‟s Discussion I assume that you are well familiar with the following areas in general pragmatics: 1. Deixis 2. Conversational implicature 3. Presupposition 4. Speech acts 5. Conversational structure Our discussion will go beyond these subtopics 2
  • 3. Scope of Today‟s Discussion 1. Cognitive approach to CCP 2. Politeness theory: Sociological approach to CCP 3. Pragmatic approach to cross-cultural communication 4. Conversation Analysis-based CCP research 3
  • 4. Cross-Cultural Pragmatics • What is of interest to CCP researchers? • Why is it worth studying and conducting research on CCP? 4
  • 5. “CCP aims at understandings the extent to which non- shared knowledge affects and modifies the retrieval of intended meaning” • Mismatches – Intention and interpretation – Limited mutual understandings – Cultural biases 5
  • 6. The need to study CCP “…individuals from different societies or communities interact according to their own pragmatic norms, often resulting in a clash of expectations and, ultimately, misperceptions about the other group. The misperceptions are typically two-way; that is, each group misperceives the other. In an age in which cross-cultural interaction is the norm not only across societies but also within them, different rules of speaking have the potential to cause stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination against entire groups of people.” 6
  • 7. What makes you understand text and talk? 1. Language itself 2. Context (whatever comes with language) • Non-language • Other-than-language artifacts 7
  • 8. Did you just say “Context”? What is „context‟? Context vs. understanding For instance: a) “No Bicycles” b) “Could you please check the bird” Guess what each expression means! 8
  • 9. To sum up Language Understanding Context 9
  • 10. Culture functions as a context! Culture Comm. Language 10
  • 11. In other words, ... 1. Communication take place within a context. 2. In a transactional model of communication, conversants reply primarily on their own culture when communicating with other and when interpreting what is communicated by other. 3. It is reasonable to claim that, for communication to be successful, conversants should have as much shared elements as possible. 11
  • 13. Again, remember seeing this slide? “CCP aims at understandings the extent to which non-shared knowledge affects and modifies the retrieval of intended meaning” • Mismatches – Intention and interpretation – Limited mutual understandings – Cultural biases 13
  • 14. Cross-cultural communication equates … • Misunderstanding • Unsuccessful communication • Delayed mutual understandings • Harder face maintenance • Foreseen, thus avoided, problem 14
  • 15. Aspects of CCP Linguistic Cognitive CCP Sociological Interactional 15
  • 16. It is all about misunderstanding! How can we as CCP researchers tackle the intercultural problem systematically? 1. Linguistic analysis of causes 2. Cognitive analysis of causes 3. Sociological analysis of causes 4. Interactional analysis of causes 16
  • 17. 1. Linguistic analysis of CC misunderstanding What is the possible cause? “Language proficiency” “Nature of language” “Semantics” “Linguistic typology” “Metaphor” “Culture-dependent language use” 17
  • 18. 2. Cognitive analysis of CC misunderstanding • Misunderstandings are caused NOT by difficulty in drawing the intended implicature, but by lack of access to the correct explicature of the utterance. 18
  • 19. 2. Cognitive analysis of CC misunderstanding 1) A: It‟s cold in here. B: I can turn off the AC now. 2) Phone rings D picks up the phone. D: Good morning. C: Hi, is Jeff in? D: One sec please. 19
  • 20. 2. Cognitive analysis of CC misunderstanding 3) Phone rings F picks up the phone. F: Hello E: Hi, is Nate there? F: Yes, hold on E: Oh, no, I just wanted to see where he is F: Ohhh OK 20
  • 21. 2. Cognitive analysis of CC misunderstanding 1. Speaker‟s intention is crucial in this domain. 2. The addressee‟s recognition of the speaker‟s communicative intention allows him to make inferences in order to understand the speaker‟s informative intention. – Informative intention: the intention to inform an audience of something. – Communicative intention: the intention to inform an audience of one‟s informative intention. 21
  • 22. 2. Cognitive analysis of CC misunderstanding 4) Dad: Ben, please go and brush your teeth! Son: Dad, I‟m not sleepy The son‟s recognition of his dad‟s communicative intention allows him to make inferences in order to understand his dad‟s informative intention. 22
  • 23. 2. Cognitive analysis of CC misunderstanding Grice‟s Maxim of Relevance “human cognition is attracted by relevant information and is able to make a sharp between relevant information and irrelevant information”. 23
  • 24. 3. Sociological analysis of CC misunderstanding 1. Politeness theory a) Face b) Positive face and negative face c) FTA‟s 2. Preference Organization a) Preferred (affiliative) action b) Dispreferred (disaffliative) action 24
  • 25. 1. Politeness theory a. Face Face NOT as a physical feature or body part! 25
  • 26. Or as known and used in facial expressions 26
  • 27. But face as a social and interactional concept. 27
  • 28. Face and Face Maintenance • Face is defined as “the positive social value a person effectively claims for himself by the line others assume he has taken during a particular contact” (Goffman, 1959). • Face is “the public self-image that every member want to claim for himself” (Brown & Levinson, 1987).
  • 29. Face Positive face “the positive consistent self- image or personality (crucially including the desire that this self-image be appreciated and approved of) claimed by interactants”. Keywords: Being valued, recognized, considered part of the group 29
  • 30. Threats to positive face (H) • Expressions of approval, criticism, complains, reprimands, insults, accusations, • Contradictions or disagreements, challenges • Expression of violent emotion • Mention of taboo topics • Bringing bad news about hearer • Raising about dangerously emotional or divisive topics • Blatant non-cooperation in an activity 30
  • 31. Threats to positive face (S) • Apologies • Acceptance of compliment • Breakdown of physical control over body • Self-humiliation • Confessions • Emotion leakage 31
  • 32. Face Negative face “the basic claim to territories, personal preserves, rights to non- distraction, i.e., to freedom of action and freedom from imposition” Keywords: Independence, freedom, lack of restrictions 32
  • 33. Threats to negative face (H) • Orders and requests • Suggestions, advice • Remindings • Threats, warnings, dares • Offers • Promises • Compliments, expressions of envy or admiration • Expression of strong emotions toward H 33
  • 34. Threats to negative face (S) • Expressing thanks • Acceptance of H‟s thanks or apology • Excuses • Acceptance of offers • Unwilling promises and offers 34
  • 35. Maximizing both faces • When we are engaged in social encounters, we do face activities unavoidably. • Participants want both positive face and negative face to be maintained and mitigated. • We can damage not only our own positive face but negative face also. • Some acts can damage both positive face and negative 35 face.
  • 36. Diagram proposed by Brown and Levinson 36
  • 37. 2. Preference Organization 1. Preferred (affiliative) action 2. Dispreferred (disaffiliative) action 37
  • 38. Adjacency Pairs Acceptance Invitation Denial 38
  • 39. Adjacency Pairs Agreement Assessment Disagreement 39
  • 40. Adjacency Pairs Acceptance Offer Denial 40
  • 41. Adjacency Pairs Acceptance Permission Refusal 41
  • 42. Adjacency Pairs Granting Request Rejection 42
  • 43. Extracts A: T‟s-tsuh beautiful day out isn‟t it? B: Yeh it‟s just gorgeous… Q: Why don‟t you come and see me some tim e R: I would like to. B: Do you want a ride? It is snowin badly out there! D: That w‟d be great, thanks. 43
  • 44. Extracts A: You coming down early? B: Well, I got a lot of things to do before gettin cleared tomorrow. I don‟t know . I w- probably won‟t be too early. P: How about going out for a drink tonight? R: (0.2) tuh-uh sorry b‟d I can‟ make it = c‟z Jill has invoted some‟ve her friends over. Perhaps some other time. 44
  • 45. Extracts A: Uh if you‟d care to come over and visit a little while this morning I‟ll give you a cup of coffee. B: hehh Well that‟s awfully sweet of you, I don‟t think I can make it this morning Hh uhm I‟m running an ad in the paper and-and uh I have to stay near the phone. 45
  • 46. Extracts P: God izn it dreary. (0.6) R: Y‟ know I don‟t think- P: hh it‟s warm though, 46
  • 47. 4. Interactional analysis of CC misunderstanding 47
  • 48. Misunderstandings in CC interaction Some misunderstandings may not be predicted in advance. The chance is greater when one does not follow conversational routines other follow. Several studies claims that conversational routines are culture-specific. 48
  • 49. Misunderstandings in CC interaction 1. When to talk a) Silence can be highly valued. b) Some culture believe it inappropriate to strangers. c) Familiarity vs. chance and amount of talk. d) Some don‟t talk when expected to by other groups. e) Stereotype of „other‟ a) Talking „other‟ b) Quiet „other‟ 49
  • 50. Misunderstandings in CC interaction 2. What to say a) Some culture never ask question „why”. b) Some culture rarely ask questions. c) Talk and learn through story telling. d) (Not) Talking about personal experience or emotional involvement e) Downplaying and upgrading utterance 50
  • 51. Misunderstandings in CC interaction 3. Pacing and pausing 1. Speed rate 2. Wait time to be the next speaker before concluding the previous one has more to say 3. Wait time between turns 51
  • 52. Misunderstandings in CC interaction 4. Listenership 1. Eye gaze used and broken by speaker and listener 2. Steady eye contact during the talk 3. Showing attention and encouragement 52
  • 53. Misunderstandings in CC interaction 5. Intonation 1. Intention and Interpretation 2. Rudeness 3. Stereotyping 53
  • 54. Misunderstandings in CC interaction 6. Formulaicity and poetic usage – Frequency – Meaning – Cultural context 54
  • 55. Misunderstandings in CC interaction 7. Indirectness “ideally, people should say what they mean and people should be accountable only for what they say in words”. 1. Straight to the point 2. Necessity of small talk 3. Never-say-NO talk 55
  • 56. Misunderstandings in CC interaction 8. Cohesion and coherence 1. Repetition 2. Syntactic position of main point. 3. Location of new information and old information 56