7. Diagnosis based on:
- focused ophthalmological history
- monocular vs. binocular
- acute vs. chronic
- painful vs. painless
- exam: … start with gross examination
- VA
- slit lamp biomicroscopy +/- fluorescein
- dilated fundus examination
- VF testing
- fluorescein angiography +/- other tests
8. **Remember for exam:
sometimes, chronic visual loss in ONE eye is
noted incidentally some time later due to
occlusion of normal eye…: CHRONIC LOSS
OF VISION CAN PRESENT ACUTELY!!
10. The Cornea
- allows light to enter the
eye
- provides most of the eye’s
optical power
- 0.5-0.8 mm thick
- transparent due to its
uniformity, avascularity
and deturgescence
12. Corneal Dystrophies
- rare inherited disorders
- progressive, usually bilateral
- can affect any of the three layers of the
cornea
- affect transparency
- age at presentation: first to fourth decades
13. Corneal Dystrophies
- divided into:
- anterior dystrophies:
- epithelium
- may present with recurrent corneal erosions
- stromal dystrophies:
- usually present with visual loss
- if very anterior, can cause erosions and pain
- posterior dystrophies:
- endothelium
- vision loss secondary to edema (endothelial dysfx)
20. If the corneal stroma opacifies due to
trauma or infection, or if there is
swelling or an irregularity of the
surface of the cornea, light cannot
properly reach the retina.
In some cases, a cornea from a
deceased donor can be transplanted.
24. The Lens
Lens
- biconvex, avascular,
transparent structure
- sits inside a thin
capsule, attached to the
ciliary body by the
zonules
- provides the
remainder of the eye’s
optical power (along
with the cornea)
25.
26. cataracts are due to the opacification of
this normally clear structure
27.
28. Age-Related Cataract
- often affect the nucleus of the lens first:
- yellowing, followed by a browning of the lens
- eventually, liquefaction
- causes myopic changes (increased
refractive index of the lens)
29. Traumatic Cataract
- most common cause of unilateral cataract
in young individuals
- most often caused by direct penetrating
injury to the lens
- can also be caused by:
- concussion
- ionizing radiation to ocular tumours
- infrared radiation (glassblowers)
30. Steroid-Induced Cataract
- both systemic and topical steroids can be
the culprits
- posterior part of lens affected first
- children may be more susceptible
- if lens changes develop, dose should be
reduced to the minimum necessary
- early opacities may regress with
discontinuation of therapy
32. Glaucoma
disease of the optic nerve, often
caused by an increase in intraocular
pressure due to poor drainage of
aqueous from the trabecular
meshwork…
33. Glaucoma
if left untreated, glaucoma can lead to
permanent damage to the optic nerve
and resultant visual field loss
can progress to blindness
34. Glaucoma
by definition, glaucoma is a trimodal
disease, characterized by:
increased IOP
optic nerve changes
visual field changes
37. Risk Factors for Glaucoma
age
african-american heritage
high IOP
family history
myopia
38. Symptoms of Glaucoma
often asymptomatic
with late disease, constriction of
peripheral, and later central visual field
with very high IOP, can have blurry
vision and halos around lights
39. Glaucoma: Optic Nerve
Changes
increased cup:disc ratio
thinning of neural rim
progressive loss of nerve fiber layer
flame hemorrhages on disc
40.
41.
42.
43. Primary Open Angle
Glaucoma
most common (90%)
usually bilateral (can be asymmetric)
prevalence increases with age
angle is open, eye is quiet
increased resistance to aqueous drainage
at the level of the trabecular meshwork is
thought to be the main pathophysiologic
feature
44.
45.
46. Treatment options
goal is to stabilize the IOP to protect
the optic nerve against further damage
options:
drops
laser
surgery
49. Glaucoma - Lasers
usually when medical management
fails
ALT (argon laser trabeculoplasty), SLT
(selective laser trabeculoplasty): for open
angle glaucomas
peripheral iridotomy: for angle-closure
glaucomas
high success rate
50. Glaucoma - Surgery
usually when medical management and
laser treatments fail
trabeculectomy: sub-conjunctival shunt of
aqueous
drainage devices (valves)
cyclodestruction: last resort – destruction
of ciliary body
56. THE RETINA
- neural tissue lining
the inside of the eye
- converts the visual
image into a
neurochemical
message and sends it
to the brain
- is made up of 10
anatomic layers
60. Diabetic Retinopathy
Ø microangiopathy
Ø affects pre-capillary arterioles, capillaries
and post-capillary venules
Ø features of:
l microvascular occlusion
l leakage
clinically, can be divided into:
l background DR (nonproliferative)
l preproliferative DR
l proliferative DR
61. Diabetic Retinopathy: Epidemiology
239 million people by 2010
doubling in prevalence since 1994
diabetes will affect:
28 million in western Europe
18.9 million in North America
138.2 million in Asia
1.3 million in Australasia
• #1 cause of blindness in patients 20-64 yrs
• prevalence increases with duration of diabetes and
patient age
rare to find DR in children < 10 yrs, regardless of duration
risk of developing DR increases after puberty
62. Epidemiology
Wisconsin Epidemiologic Study of Diabetic Retinopathy
l Between 1979-1980
l 1210 patients with Type 1
l 1780 patients with Type 2
l predominantly white population
l After 20 yrs, DR present in:
• 99% of Type 1
• 60% of Type 2
65. Diabetic Retinopathy: Risk Factors
Ø duration of diabetes: most important risk
factor
Ø poor metabolic control
Ø pregnancy: can be associated with rapid
progression
Ø HTN
Ø nephropathy
Ø smoking
Ø obesity
Ø hyperlipidemia
66. Classification of Diabetic Retinopathy
Ø Classified into 2 stages
Nonproliferative Diabetic Retinopathy (NPDR)
early stage
also known as background DR (BDR)
further categorized based upon extent of DR
l mild, moderate, severe, very severe
l Proliferative Diabetic Retinopathy (PDR)
• more advanced stage
• ***Macular edema
• May be present at any stage of DR
67. NPDR
Ø typically asymptomatic
l fluctuating visual acuity:
• fluctuating blood sugar
l decreased visual acuity:
CSME
macular ischemia
review these patients annually
72. Proliferative Diabetic Retinopathy
Ø more likely to become
symptomatic than early
NPDR
Ø may have decreased
vision, sudden vision loss,
floaters, cobwebs, flashes,
dull eye ache
Ø PDR can also affect visual
function by affecting the
macula with resulting
macular ischemia and/or
edema
73. Proliferative DR
Ø affects 5-10% of the diabetic population
Ø neovascularization is the hallmark
l NVD: neovascularization of the disc
l NVE: neovascularization elsewhere
Ø new vessels are not only extremely fragile
(intraretinal or vitreous hemorrhage), but
often associated with fibrous proliferation,
leading to an increased risk of tractional retinal
detachment
74.
75.
76.
77.
78.
79.
80. Advanced PDR
Tractional retinal
detachment
resulting from
contraction of
the fibrovascular
proliferative
tissue on the
retina
81.
82.
83.
84.
85. Panretinal Photocoagulation for High-risk
PDR
goal is to induce
involution (or at
least arrest) of new
vessels by creating
areas of retinal
ischemia
1200-3000 burns
4 sessions
90. Diabetic Macular Edema (DME)
Ø retinal edema threatening or involving the
macula
diagnosis is made by slit-lamp exam,
confirmed by fluorescein angiography and/or
OCT
important observations include:
l location of retinal thickening relative to the
fovea
l presence and location of exudates
92. Treatment of CSME
argon laser application
intravitreal steroid injection
intravitreal anti-VEGF injection
pars plana vitrectomy
93. Ophthalmological Follow-Up
Diabetic Screening
l Type 1 diabetics:
Dilated funduscopic exam (DFE) 5 yrs after
diagnosis
Newly diagnosed patients with Type 1 diabetes
rarely have retinopathy during the first 5 yrs
l Type 2 diabetics:
Type 2 diabetics typically diagnosed yrs after initial
onset
DFE at the time of diagnosis
Significant portion of newly diagnosed Type 2
diabetics have established DR at the time of
diagnosis
97. CRAO
most of the retina is supplied by the
central retinal artery (branch of the
ophthalmic artery, which is the first branch
of the ICA)
if this supply is interrupted (embolus,
thrombosis, inflammation, vasculitis or
compression), the retina becomes
ischemic
irreversible damage occurs after
approximately 90 minutes
98. CRAO
presentation is with sudden and
profound loss of vision
RAPD is present
orange reflex from the choroid stands
out at the fovea, and contrasts with the
surrounding pale retina (cherry-red
spot)
must r/o temporal arteritis
99. CRAO
most commonly the result of
atherosclerosis (thrombosis) but may
also be caused by calcific emboli
often in older patients, with a hx of
arteriosclerosis
may have had a hx of amaurosis fugax
(transient visual loss)
104. BRAO
sudden and profound altitudinal or
sectoral visual field loss
similar causes as CRAO
identify and treat associated medical
conditions (HTN, DM,
hypercholesterolemia, smoking,
vasculitis etc…)
105. BRAO
retinal cloudiness in ischemic area
+/- visible embolus
also has a poor prognosis, unless the
obstruction can be dislodged within a
few hours
109. CRVO
thrombosis of the central retinal vein
sudden loss of vision in affected eye
severity of symptoms varies…
non-ischemic: 75%
Ischemic
most characteristic finding: retinal
hemorrhages
115. BRVO
thrombosis of a branch of the central
retinal vein
visual loss depends on the amount of
macular drainage compromised by the
occlusion (peripheral occlusions may be
asymptomatic)
characteristic findings in one sector of the
retina:
dilatation and tortuosity of veins
retinal hemorrhages
retinal/macular edema
116. BRVO
obstruction often at arterio-venous
crossings: arteries and veins share
adventitial sheath… thickening of the
arteriole (arteriosclerosis) compresses
the vein, eventually causing an occlusion
often associated with:
hypertension (75%)
diabetes (10%)
117. BRVO
prognosis: depends on amt of venous
drainage involved by the occlusion and
severity of macular ischemia: within 6 mos,
about 50% of eyes have a VA of 20/30 or
better
main complications:
chronic macular edema
neovascularization
laser photocoagulation may be helpful in
above cases
122. Choroidal Melanoma
most common primary intraocular
tumour in adults
presentation usually in 6th decade:
asymptomatic vs. visual field defect and/or
decreased visual acuity
signs:
raised, usually pigmented lesion visible at
the back of the eye
may be associated with retinal detachment
optic nerve may be involved
123. Choroidal Melanoma
treatment:
consider size, location, activity of tumour,
state of fellow eye, general health/age of pt,
pt’s wishes/fears
• brachytherapy
• external radiotherapy
• transpupillary thermotherapy
• local resection
• enucleation
• exenteration
• palliative (may include chemo)
124.
125.
126. Choroidal Metastases
…with choroidal melanoma, don’t forget
general medical investigations!
mets TO the choroid:
• most frequently from bronchus in both sexes
and the breast in women, rarely kidney or GI
CXR, rectal exam, mammography
mets FROM the choroid:
• liver
hepatic u/s, GGT, ALP
• lungs (rarely affected before liver)
CXR
127. Choroidal Metastases
usually present with visual impairment
only IF tumour is near the macula
signs:
fast-growing, creamy coloured lesion
most often in posterior pole
usually not very elevated (infiltrates laterally)
128. Choroidal Metastases
treatment:
observe: if asxic or receiving systemic chemo
radiation: external beam or brachy
transpupillary thermotherapy
systemic therapy for the primary
enucleation: for painful blind eye
prognosis is poor…
median survival: 8-12 mos for all pts, 15-17
mos for those with breast ca
129.
130. Retinoblastoma
most common malignant tumour of the eye
in childhood (1:20 000)
mean age of presentation: 8 mos if
inherited, 25 mos if sporadic
60% present with leukocoria (white pupillary
reflex)
strabismus (20%)
occasionally: painful, red eye
if inherited: often bilateral
131. Retinoblastoma
malignant transformation of primitive
retinal cells before their final differentiation
can be caused by germinal mutations (can
be passed on to the next generation), or
can be sporadic (66% of cases)
132. Retinoblastoma
this is a clinical diagnosis, but CSF and
bone marrow should be examined to check
for metastatic disease if ON involved or if
there is evidence of extraocular extension
rx:
small: cryotherapy, photocoagulation
medium: brachytherapy, external beam, chemo
large/advanced cases: chemoreduction + local
treatment, enucleation
metastatic disease: chemo (intrathecal if cells
in CSF)
133. Retinoblastoma
prognosis:
depends on extent of disease at diagnosis
overall mortality ~ 5-15%
~ 50% of children with the germinal mutation
will eventually develop a second primary
tumour (eg., osteosarcoma of the femur or
pinealoblastoma)
136. Macula
1.5 mm in diameter
central vision: BEST VISUAL ACUITY
colour vision
progressive destruction of the macular
area:
MACULAR DEGENERATION
137.
138. Macular Degeneration
most common cause of irreversible
visual loss in the developed world
exists in two forms:
non-exudative (dry) macular
degeneration
exudative (wet) macular
degeneration
139. Non-exudative Macular
Degeneration
lipid products arising from
photoreceptor outer segments are
found under retina
can be seen with ophthalmoscope!
called « drusen »
140.
141. Exudative Macular
Degeneration
new vessels from the choroid grow into
the sub-retinal space; form a sub-
retinal neovascular membrane
subsequent hemorrhage into the sub-
retinal space or even through the retina
into the vitreous is associated with
profound loss of vision
142.
143. Macular Degeneration
symptoms:
since fovea is responsible for fine visual
resolution, any disruption will cause
severe visual impairment
• blurry/reduced vision
• distorted vision (metamorphopsia)
• reduction (micropsia) or enlargement
(macropsia) of objects
• VF loss (scotoma)
144. Macular Degeneration
rx:
non-exudative (usually slowly
progressive):
• no actual medical treatment
• use low vision aids
• high dose antioxidants MAY be
beneficial (eg., vitalux)
145. Macular Degeneration
rx:
exudative (can be rapidly progressive and
devastating):
• intravitreal injections of anti-VEGF
factors: bevacizumab, ranibizumab
• photodynamic therapy (injection of
photosensitizer into systemic circulation
followed immediately by laser targeting
new vessels in macular area)
• combination of above treatments
148. OPTIC NERVE
1.2 million cells
80 % visual fibres
20 % pupillary fibres
carries visual
information from
the eye to the brain
149.
150.
151. OPTIC CHIASM
crossover of nasal fibers
above the pituitary
internal carotids are just
lateral
from optic chiasm:
optic tract to the
lateral geniculate body
opticradiation to the
primary visual cortex
153. Compressive Optic
Neuropathies
INTRACRANIAL MASSES:
optic nerve glioma
• typically affects young women, end of first decade
• associated with NF-1
optic nerve sheath meningioma
• most frequent in middle-aged women
• unilateral, gradual visual impairment
any other orbital or chiasmal tumour
compressing any part of the optic nerve
THYROID EYE DISEASE
154. Thyroid Eye Disease
may occur in the absence of biochemical
evidence of thyroid dysfx
autoimmune reaction (IgG Abs) causing:
inflammation of EOMs: pleiomorphic cellular
infiltration associated with increased secretion
of GAGs and osmotic imbibition of water
• muscles can become up to 8 times their original
size!!
no relation to severity of thyroid dysfx!
155. Thyroid Eye Disease
main findings: (not all are always present!)
soft tissue involvement
lid retraction
proptosis
optic neuropathy
restrictive myopathy
156.
157.
158.
159.
160. Thyroid Eye Disease
vision loss from:
exposure keratopathy
• due to severe proptosis resulting in incomplete lid
closure → chronically exposed cornea → corneal
ulceration & exposure keratopathy
optic neuropathy
• affects 5% of pts
• compression of ON or its blood supply by
congested (enlarged) EOMs
• can lead to severe, permanent visual impairment
• rx with steroids, surgery if needed
162. Nutritional Deficiencies
pts with extremely poor diets, often in association
with alcohol-tobacco amblyopia
usually due to B12 deficiency in combination with
cyanide toxicity
symmetrical VF loss
if early, can be treated with high-dose vitamins
and restoration of « well-balanced diet »
eventually leads to optic atrophy and permanent
vision loss
163. Alcohol-Tobacco Amblyopia
affects heavy drinkers, cigar and pipe smokers: deficient in
protein and the B vitamins
symptoms: insidious, bilateral, progressive visual
impairment + dyschromatopsia
signs: symmetrical VF defect, may have pale (or normal)
discs
rx: 1000 units of hydroxocobalamin qweekly X 10 wks +
multivitamins + « well-balanced diet »
px:
good in early cases if comply with rx
advanced cases: optic atrophy and permanent visual
loss
165. Pituitary Adenoma
presentation usually in early adult life or
middle age
symptoms:
h/a
visual symptoms: very gradual onset (often
not noticed by pt until very well-established)
• VF defect: usually, bitemporal hemianopia, worst in
the superior field, and extending inferiorly
• colour desaturation across vertical midline
• optic atrophy: in 50% of cases with field defects
caused by pituitary lesions
166. Pituitary Adenoma
investigations:
MRI: coronal, axial and sagittal sections before
and after gadolinium injection
CT: demonstrates enlargement or erosion of
the sella
endocrinological investigation: PRL, FSH, TSH,
GH
167. Pituitary Adenoma
treatment options:
observation
medical: dopamine agonists (bromocriptine)
surgery
radiotherapy: often used as an adjunct
gamma knife stereotactic radiotherapy