2. Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen discovered x rays on
November 8, 1895
Properties of x rays - December 28, 1895
Was awarded the first Nobel Prize for Physics in
1901
International day of Radiology – November 8
3. X rays belong to a group of radiations called electromagnetic radiation,
which is the transport of energy through space as a combination of electric and
magnetic fields.
Radio waves, radiant heat, visible light and gamma radiation
Electromagnetic radiation is produced by a charged particle being accelerated
(type of energy).
6. Nucleus of an atom – Protons(Z) + neutrons
Electrons orbit in specific shells (K, L, M, N, etc.) around the nucleus
Orbiting electrons – Properties of X rays and its interaction with matter
7. Ionizing radiation – Higher energy; emits electrons or other
particles from atom when they collide.
Eg. Alpha, gamma and x rays
Non ionizing radiation – Excites electrons from a lower level to a
higher level
Eg. UV, visible, infrared, microwave, radio waves
8. Wave concept
Electromagnetic radiation is propagated through space in the form of waves.
atom absorbs energy The absorbed energy causes one or more electrons to
change their location within the atom.
When the electron returns to its original position, an electromagnetic wave is
produced.
Depending on the kind of atom and the amount of energy, this electromagnetic
radiation can take the form of heat, light, ultraviolet, or other electromagnetic
waves.
9. Electromagnetic waves do not require a medium; they can be propagated
through a vacuum.
Distance b/w two successive crests - wavelength of the wave (λ).
Number of waves passing a particular point in a unit of time - frequency (ν).
Velocity of the wave, V = λ x ν.
10. Electromagnetic radiation travels at the same velocity in a vacuum
(3 x 108 meters per second)
Frequency inversely proportional to wavelength.
Electromagnetic radiation differs commonly in wavelength.
Wavelength of diagnostic x rays is extremely short and expressed in
angstrom units (Å) or nanometers.
11. Particle concept
Short electromagnetic waves (X rays) may react with matter as if they were
particles, which are usually discrete bundles of energy (quantum/ photon).
Describes the interactions between radiation and matter.
energy of quantum or photon ∝ frequency of radiation.
E = hν, where E = photon energy, h = Planck's constant and v = frequency
12.
13. X rays are produced by energy conversion when a fast moving stream of electrons is
suddenly decelerated in the target anode of an x ray tube.
X ray tube - Pyrex glass that encloses vacuum containing two electrodes (diode tube).
Electrons produced at cathode (negative electrode or filament) can be accelerated by a
high potential difference towards anode (positive or target electrode).
Electrons produced by a heated tungsten filament and accelerated across the tube to hit
the tungsten target, where x rays are produced.
14.
15. Two sources of electrical energy are required –
Filament heating voltage (10V) and current (10A)
Accelerating voltage (30-150kv) between anode and cathode – drives the current
of electrons flowing between anode and cathode (tube current)
Small increase in temperature produces large increase in tube current.
16. Fast moving electrons are suddenly stopped by impact on metal target
Electric charge of electron does not change the increasing voltage across the x ray tube
increase the kinetic energy of electron (E = ev)
High speed electrons lose energy at target by 2 processes –
Reaction of electrons with nucleus of tungsten atoms
Collision between high speed electrons and electrons in the shell of target tungsten
atom
17. Bremsstrahlung radiation
When an electron pass near the nucleus of a tungsten atom, the positive charge of
the nucleus acts on negative charge of electron.
The electron is thus deflected from its original position.
Electron may lose energy and slows down when its direction changes.
The kinetic energy lost by electron is directly emitted in the form of photon
radiation.
18. The electron only gives up part of its energy in
the form of radiation - braking radiation.
Braking phenomenon (wide distribution in
the energy of radiation) -
Electron undergoes many reactions before
coming to rest
Electron beam that strikes the target have
widely different energy.
19. Wavelength of the radiation produced depends on energy of the electron
(keV) and the potential difference (kVp) .
Deceleration of the electrons in the electric field of a nucleus depends on
how close the electron passes to the nucleus,
the energy of the electron and
the charge of the nucleus.
20. Characteristic radiation
The electrons bombarding the target ejects
electrons from the inner orbit of the target
atoms.
Removal of an electron from the tungsten atom
causes the atom to have an excess positive
charge → a positive ion.
21. In the process of returning to its normal state, the ionized atom of
tungsten may get rid of excess energy in two ways:
An additional electron (Auger electron) may be expelled by the atom and
carry excess energy [there is no x ray production in this way].
The atom emits radiation that has a wavelength within the range of
diagnostic x rays [characteristic x rays.
22. Properties of X rays Highly penetrating, invisible rays.
Liberate minute amounts of heat on passing through matter.
Behave both as waves and as particles.
Are not deflected by electric or magnetic fields. (electrically neutral).
Poly energetic, having wide spread of energies and wavelengths,
useful energy range 25 to 120 kVp.
23. Travels ordinarily in straight lines with same speed as light. (3x108 m/sec).
Cause fluorescence of certain crystals, making possible use in
fluoroscopy and
radiographic intensifying screens.
Produce biological and chemical changes by ionization and excitation in
substances through which they pass.
Cannot be focused by a lens.
Produce secondary and scattered radiation.
Ionize gases indirectly by ability to remove orbital electrons from atom.
24.
25. X-ray photons may interact either with the
1. orbital electrons or with the
2. nucleus of the atom
In diagnostic energy range, the interactions are always with orbital electrons.
Interactions depend on the atomic makeup of the tissue and not its molecular
structure. E.g. oxygen atoms will stop the same number of x-ray photons
regardless of their physical state.
26. X ray photons may be either absored / scatter.
If absorbed completely removed from the x ray beam cease to exist.
If scattered deflected into a random course no longer carries information
cannot portray an image (blackness) as NOISE / FILM FOG.
27. ATTENUATION – A reduction in the intensity (energy) of the beam
ABSORPTION – The transfer of energy from the beam to the irradiated
material.
SCATTER – Radiation in a direction other than the primary beam, with or
without a loss of energy
28. Radiation interaction depends on :
Tissue electron density
Tissue thickness
Energy of the x ray (kVp).
The various structures of the body attenuate by differing amounts.
30. Coherent scattering
When radiation undergoes a change in direction without a change in the
wavelength.
Occurs when low energy radiation encounters the electron of an atom and sets
them into vibration at the frequency of radiation.
Also termed as UNMODIFIED SCATERRING or CLASSICAL SCATTERING.
32. Two types –
Thompson scattering – single electron is involved.
Rayleigh scattering - cooperative interaction with all the
electrons of an atom.
33. Increases with low atomic number materials and lower photon energies.
Less than 5% of radiation undergoes coherent scattering.
Does not play a major role in diagnostic x rays.
This is the only type of interaction that does not cause ionization as there is
no energy transferred.
34. Photoelectric Effect The incident photon collides with the K shell electron Gives up its energy to the
electron to overcome the binding energy flies into the space as photoelectron
(negative ion)
The vacant spot in the K shell is filled by an electron from the adjacent L or M shell
electrons → x ray photon is released (characteristic radiation).
Atom deficient of one electron even if free electron from another atom fills the void→
end result is the same, a positive ion.
35.
36. Probability of Occurrence
Incident photon must have sufficient energy to overcome binding energy of the electron.
Likely to occur when the photon energy and electron binding energy are nearly the same;
photoelectric effect is inversely proportional to energy.
Tightly bound electrons are more likely to be involved in a photoelectric reaction; electrons are
more tightly bound in element with high atomic number.
37. Applications to diagnostic radiology
Advantages :
Produces good radiographic images
Does not produce scatter radiation
Enhances the natural soft tissue contrast
Film quality is good
Magnifies the difference in tissues composed of different elements
such as bone and soft tissue.
Disadvantages: Patient receives more radiation.
38. Compton scattering
An incident photon with relatively high energy strikes a free outer shell
electron ejects from its orbit travels a new direction as scatter radiation
Positive atom and negative electron “recoil” electron.
Energy of incident photon goes to recoil electron (as kinetic energy) and retained in
the deflected photon.
The amount of energy the photon retains depends on the initial energy and the angle of
deflection off the recoil electron.
Photons also have a momentum, and the higher the energy of the photon, the difficult
they are to deflect.
39. Probability of occurrence :
Depends on the total number and density of the electrons.
Higher the photon energy it is more likely to pass through the body than a low energy
photon
For elements with low atomic number, all the electrons can be considered free, even k
shell.
40. Pair production The photon interacts with the nucleus in such a manner that its energy is converted to
matter namely an electron and positron.
Both have the same mass and resting mass energy of 0.51 MeV.
Not encountered in diagnostic procedures as it involved photons with
energies in excess of 1.02 MeV.
41. Photodisintegration
Part of the nucleus of a atom is ejected by high energy photon.
The ejected particle may be a neutron, proton, alpha particle or a cluster of particles.
Incident photon must have sufficient energy to overcome nuclear binding energies of
7 – 15 MeV which is also far beyond diagnostic radiology and hence insignificant.
42. Only two interactions are important in diagnostic radiology, the
photoelectric effect and Compton scattering.
Coherent is numerically unimportant.
Pair production and photodisintegration = higher energies
The photoelectric effect is low energy interaction with high atomic number
absorbers produces high contrast.
Compton most common and is responsible for almost all scatter radiation
Summary