An overview of examples and structures in introductions and conclusions

1. Introductions and
Conclusions

2. Remember writing is a process : keep making sure your that the
ideas in your introduction and main body are connected

3. Use your research to plan your essay.
These are the parts you must plan to
write.
Do you have enough information?
Every piece of coursework requires an
introduction (generally 10% of word
count) and a conclusion (generally around
5-10% of word count)

5. Introductions
• What is the purpose of an introduction?
• What information might you find in an introduction?

6. About Introductions
•Planning and writing an effective introduction will help
you organise your academic writing and focus on the
aims of your assignment.
•Essay introductions do not have a sub heading –
Introduction.
•Writing an essay is not like writing a mystery novel with
an unfolding plot.
•Aim to be clear and direct. Your reader should not have
to read several pages before finding out what your
argument or thesis is; it needs to be in the introduction.
Remember:
 You do not need to write the
introduction first.
• Even if you do write the introduction
first, you will probably need to go back
and re-write it

7. Beginning with
background
information will help
avoid “diving into”
the introduction
Having a thesis
statement shows the
reader what you
viewpoint is

8. Features of Introductions
1. Gain the reader’s interest by offering a hook / opening statement.
2. Give background and context moving from the general to the particular.
3. Provide a rationale for researching and writing the text.
4. Define any key terms necessary to the understanding of the text.
5. Present evidence and citations to support your argument e.g. when you define
key terms
6. State limitations e.g. to previous research, to the current text.
7. State the overall purpose and aims of the text/ thesis statement
8. State how the whole text is organised.
9. Indicate the conclusions of the text.
Look at the list of nine
statements and decide which of
them are
a. Essential features of an
introduction?
b. Optional features of an
introduction?

9. Essential
2. Give background and context moving
from the general to the particular.
3. Provide a rationale for researching
and writing the text.
7. State the overall purpose and aims of
the text/ thesis statement
8. State how the whole text is
organised.
Optional
1. Gain the reader’s interest by
offering a hook or an opening
statement.
4. Defining key terms as
necessary
5. Present evidence and citations
e.g. when you define key terms
6. State limitations e.g. to
previous research, to the current
text.

10. Paragraph A : What determines
altruistic behaviour?
It has long been recognised that human
behaviour does not always have to be
focused towards the gain of the individual
and their circle of family and friends.
Many people behave in altruistic ways that
seem to help unknown people for no
obvious reason, for example, by giving
money to distant charities. Altruism may
be defined as ‘ helping behaviour that is
motivated by a selfless concern for the
welfare of another person.’ (Psychology
and Society, n.d.). This phenomenon has
been studied from a number of
perspectives. The work of Reuter,
Frenzel, Walter, Markett and Montag
(2011.pp.662-668) approaches the issue
from a genetic perspective, identifying the
neurotransmitter dopamine as a key factor
affecting human altruism. Other research
adopts an evolutionary perspective,
investigating group selection for altruistic
behaviour is the increasing influence of
the charity and non- profit sectors in
many economies. This essay aims to
Using the nine point checklist evaluate this
introduction.
Which of the nine features can you identify?
Which features are not included?

11. It has long been recognised that human
behaviour does not always have to be focused
towards the gain of the individual and their circle
of family and friends. Many people behave in
altruistic ways that seem to help unknown people
for no obvious reason, for example, by giving
money to distant charities. Altruism may be
defined as ‘ helping behaviour that is motivated
by a selfless concern for the welfare of another
person.’ (Psychology and Society, n.d.). This
phenomenon has been studied from a number of
perspectives. The work of Reuter, Frenzel,
Walter, Markett and Montag (2011.pp.662-668)
approaches the issue from a genetic perspective,
identifying the neurotransmitter dopamine as a
key factor affecting human altruism. Other
research adopts an evolutionary perspective,
investigating group selection as an explanation
for altruism. A key reason for the importance of
understanding altruistic behaviour is the
increasing influence of the charity and non-
profit sectors in many economies. This essay
General Opening
statement
Giving background
and context
Defining key
terms.
Connecting sentence
: bridge
Presenting evidence
and citations to support
your argument.
Providing a rationale for
researching and writing
the text.
Thesis Statement
Outlines the structure
and aims of the essay.
(7 & 8)

12. Paragraph B : Chocolate and Social
Class
The debate over the right of access to chocolate has developed
greatly over recent years. Whereas chocolate was formerly regarded
as the domain of the wealthy, it has now come to be more widely
seen as a right to which all are entitled. There are some, however,
who see the diversity of approaches as being ‘socially constructed’,
meaning that different groups of people are conditioned, or
expected, to want or need chocolate, even if this conflicts with their
natural inclinations (Brown & White 2007). To date, while some
research has focussed on perceptions of chocolate in the general
population, little research has been done into how chocolate is
perceived by those involved in higher education. This essay will
examine past and present attitudes to chocolate, and illustrate how
the construct of ‘chocolate’ varies between two different social
groups in Australia, namely university academic staff and students, in
order to show that all should have a right to chocolate but not all may

13. Paragraph A
The debate over the right of access to chocolate has
developed greatly over recent years. Whereas chocolate was
formerly regarded as the domain of the wealthy, it has now
come to be more widely seen as a right to which all are
entitled. There are some, however, who see the diversity of
approaches as being ‘socially constructed’, meaning that
different groups of people are conditioned, or expected, to
want or need chocolate, even if this conflicts with their
natural inclinations (Brown & White 2007). To date, while
some research has focussed on perceptions of chocolate in
the general population, little research has been done into
how chocolate is perceived by those involved in higher
education. This essay will examine past and present attitudes
to chocolate, and illustrate how the construct of ‘chocolate’
varies between two different social groups in Australia,
namely university academic staff and students, in order to
show that all should have a right to chocolate but not all may
wish to avail themselves of this right.
General
Opening /
Background
information
Key terms
Rationale for the
research : Gap in
knowledge
Thesis
statement /
conclusions

14. Paragraph C : Design and Planning in
the North East
Since August 2006, UK planning regulations have
required developers to submit a design and access
statement with most applications. A design and access
statement is intended to assist design decision-
making in the planning application process by
clarifying the design approach of the applicant from
the outset. The aim of the statement is to facilitate
greater common understanding by all concerned by
making the process and outcome of decision-making
more open, rigorous and sustainable. This paper seeks
to investigate the background of government
intervention in design decision-making through
planning. It then specifically investigates whether
design and access statements are in fact perceived as
improving decision-making from the local planning
authority perspective, as well as the developer
perspective, using primary data from north-east
England. Comparisons are made with a recent national
study by the Planning Advisory Service on design and
access statements. This reveals different viewpoints on
the extent to which the introduction of design and
access statements is helping the design decision-
making process. Developers are more critical than local
planning authorities, but all perceive some value in the
process and offer views on potential improvements.

15. Paragraph B
[BACKGROUND INFO]>>Since August 2006, UK planning regulations require developers to
submit a design and access statement with most applications. [BACKGROUND
INFORMATION)A design and access statement is intended to assist design decision making
in the planning application process by clarifying the design approach of the applicant from
the outset. The aim of the statement is to facilitate greater common understanding by all
concerned by making the process and outcome of decision making more open, rigorous and
sustainable. [AIM]>> This paper seeks to investigate the background of government
intervention in design decision making through planning. [STRUCTURE/APPROACH/]>>It
then specifically investigates whether design and access statements are in fact perceived as
improving decision making from the local planning authority perspective, as well as the
developer perspective, using primary data from north-east England. Comparisons are made
with a recent national study by the Planning Advisory Service on design and access
statements. [FINDINGS/THESIS STATEMENT] >>This reveals different viewpoints on the
extent to which the introduction of design and access statements is helping the design
decision making process. Developers are more critical than local planning authorities, but all
perceive some value in the process and offer views on potential improvements.

16. Using background information
It has long been recognised that human behaviour
does not always have to be focused towards the gain
of the individual and their circle of family and friends.
Many people behave in altruistic ways that seem to
help unknown people for no obvious reason, for
example, by giving money to distant charities.
Altruism may be defined as ‘ helping behaviour that is
motivated by a selfless concern for the welfare of
another person.’ (Psychology and Society, n.d.). This
phenomenon has been studied from a number of
perspectives. The work of Reuter, Frenzel, Walter,
Markett and Montag (2011.pp.662-668) approaches
the issue from a genetic perspective, identifying the
neurotransmitter dopamine as a key factor affecting
human altruism. Other research adopts an
evolutionary perspective, investigating group
selection for altruistic behaviour is the increasing
influence of the charity and non- profit sectors in
many economies. This essay aims to examine
altruistic behaviour from an evolutionary perspective,
leading to three possible motivating factors, which
are then evaluated.

17. Background information
“It has long been recognised that human behaviour does not always have to be
focused towards the gain of the individual and their circle of family and
friends.”
“Many people behave in altruistic ways that seem to help unknown people for
no obvious reason, for example, by giving money to distant charities. “
- Sentence 1 sets the context : “It has long been recognised…..” - setting your
topic in a historical context is a good way to begin
Then let the second sentence become more focused:
“Many people behave…..” links human behaviour to the essay focus: altruism -

19. Conclusions
What is the purpose of an conclusion?
What information might you find in a conclusion?
Do you have any other comments about conclusion?

20. Conclusions
•The conclusion of an essay often summarises
the main points but it should not just repeat
them.
•It shows how the arguments relate to each other
and links back to your thesis statement.
•It also draws wider conclusions such as
implications of the ideas discussed, practical
applications, predictions for the future and
suggestions for further research.
•The conclusion may also acknowledge the
limitations of the essay, for example points that
were not discussed.
•Avoid adding any new information to your
conclusion
•Avoid telling the reader how you wrote your
essay (if possible):
•e.g. X “This essay has considered a, b
and c. It has shown p, q and r. It has also
been claimed that x, y and z’.”
•e.g. √ “ ‘In conclusion, a, b and c are
clearly important’; or ‘P, q and r are key
to . . . However, x, y and z are less
central to the argument.’ ”

22. Conclusion A
It can be seen, then, that chocolate is a right, as well as a social construct, but
that different social groups within Australian higher education view the concept
of ‘chocolate’ differently. Lecturers tend to prefer dark chocolate, while students
indicate a preference for milk chocolate, even though both types of chocolate
are available. More research is needed, however, to investigate gender and age
differences in regard to these preferences. Worldwide, it is evident from the
literature that despite greater transportability and increased production, in
many locations chocolate is still only available to the privileged few. What is
clear, therefore, is that although all should have a right to chocolate this is not
the case in every society, and even those who have this right do not always
choose to exercise it. Only when chocolate is finally available to everyone will it
be possible to claim that chocolate is no longer restricted to the wealthy, but has
become a right for every individual throughout the world.

23. Conclusion A
It can be seen, then, that chocolate is a right, as well as a social
construct, but that different social groups within Australian higher education
view the concept of ‘chocolate’ differently. Lecturers tend to prefer dark
chocolate, while students indicate a preference for milk chocolate, even though
both types of chocolate are available. More research is needed, however, to
investigate gender and age differences in regard to these preferences.
Worldwide, it is evident from the literature that despite greater transportability
and increased production, in many locations chocolate is still only available to
the privileged few. What is clear, therefore, is that although all should have a
right to chocolate this is not the case in every society, and even those who have
this right do not always choose to exercise it. Only when chocolate is finally
available to everyone will it be possible to claim that chocolate is no longer
restricted to the wealthy, but has become a right for every individual throughout
the world.
Summary of argument
Findings
Area for future research
Remaining problems
Strong final sentences

24. Conclusion B
In conclusion, it is apparent that the most
effective element in teaching of English articles is
the reinforcement of the notion of countability.
The evidence presented here suggests that
learners do not use articles randomly, but that
they choose articles according to whether or not
the noun is countable. The concept of
definiteness in relation to articles remains,
however, more problematic, and needs further
investigation. Despite these problems, it is
possible for teachers to make a positive
contribution to learners’ knowledge in this
important area.

25. Conclusion B
In conclusion, it is apparent that the most
effective element in teaching of English articles is
the reinforcement of the notion of countability.
The evidence presented here suggests that
learners do not use articles randomly, but that
they choose articles according to whether or not
the noun is countable. The concept of
definiteness in relation to articles remains,
however, more problematic, and needs further
investigation. Despite these problems, it is
possible for teachers to make a positive
contribution to learners’ knowledge in this
important area.
What the essay found
Summary
Future areas
Repeating benefits/relevance
of outcomes
Note the language used in each part: “it is apparent”; “evidence
suggests..”; “ needs further investigation”; “ despite… it is possible”

26. Conclusion C : More detailed
[1] In the above sections, a number of recent perspectives on business leadership strategies
between Asia, Africa, and the West have been analyzed. [2] It was argued that new multifaceted,
intercultural strategies embracing difference are required to promote success in business leadership.
[3] Two key factors were highlighted as underpinning the new analytic lenses: globalization and the
hegemonic dominance of Western business practices around the world. [4] Together, these two
factors were often seen as central to the relegation of local knowledge and practices to positions of
secondary importance, and behind the need for crossvergence strategies. [5] In short, I strongly
advocate Guo’s (2015) and Li’s (2016) support for crossvergence as it offers a definitive way forward
for international business leaders by overcoming the limitations of two alternative lenses: cultural
universalism and coming together across cultures ( convergence), and moving in opposite cultural
directions (divergence). [6] As stated by Guo (2015), crossvergence of influences and business
ideology can bring about a new system of independent cultural values, which find representation on
multiple levels of business leadership. [7] A crossvergence perspective is not only a lens that reflects
the multipolarity of the international world of business; it is also a practical business strategy that
can help a business leader’s process of decision-making across diverse cultures. [8] In the next 20
years, business success and international cooperation will depend on leaders who have an in-depth
understanding of these complexities.

27. Conclusion C
[1] In the above sections, a number of recent perspectives on business leadership strategies
between Asia, Africa, and the West have been analyzed. [2] It was argued that new multifaceted,
intercultural strategies embracing difference are required to promote success in business leadership.
[3] Two key factors were highlighted as underpinning the new analytic lenses: globalization and the
hegemonic dominance of Western business practices around the world. [4] Together, these two
factors were often seen as central to the relegation of local knowledge and practices to positions of
secondary importance, and behind the need for crossvergence strategies. [5] In short, I strongly
advocate Guo’s (2015) and Li’s (2016) support for crossvergence as it offers a definitive way forward
for international business leaders by overcoming the limitations of two alternative lenses: cultural
universalism and coming together across cultures ( convergence), and moving in opposite cultural
directions (divergence). [6] As stated by Guo (2015), crossvergence of influences and business
ideology can bring about a new system of independent cultural values, which find representation on
multiple levels of business leadership. [7] A crossvergence perspective is not only a lens that reflects
the multipolarity of the international world of business; it is also a practical business strategy that
can help a business leader’s process of decision-making across diverse cultures. [8] In the next 20
years, business success and international cooperation will depend on leaders who have an in-depth
understanding of these complexities.
1-3 briefly summarise
findings
4 brings the
arguments together
5-7 provide final
answers / opinions
8 provides a general
closing statement
by looking forward

28. Introductions or Conclusions?
1.Despite these problems, it is possible for teachers to make a positive contribution to learners’ knowledge in this important area.
2.The essay which follows gives a brief history of prepositional theory and discusses two major teaching strategies from a
cognitive linguistic perspective.
3.The concept of definiteness in relation to articles remains, however, more problematic, and needs further investigation.
4.The evidence presented here suggests that learners do not use articles randomly, but that they choose articles according to
whether or not the noun is countable.
5.These small connecting words do not necessarily exist in other languages, or may not have exactly the same meanings.
6.The use of prepositions in English has always been problematic for language learners.
7.In conclusion, it is apparent that the most effective element in teaching of English articles is the reinforcement of the notion of
accountability.
8.This makes teaching of this area very difficult, and research (Lindstromberg 1998; Brala 2002) indicates that no single method
has yet proved successful.

29. Introductions or Conclusions?
Introduction
6. The use of prepositions in English has always been problematic for language learners.
5. These small connecting words do not necessarily exist in other languages, or may not have exactly
the same meanings.
8. This makes teaching of this area very difficult, and research (Lindstromberg 1998, Brala2002)
indicates that no single method has yet proved successful.
2. The essay which follows gives a brief history of prepositional theory and discusses twomajor teaching
strategies from a cognitive linguistic perspective.

30. See how the introduction
starts general and then
gets more focussed at the
end before the main body
The conclusion starts by
commenting on what you
have written in the main
body and so is quite
specific
It then opens up to
recommendations, future
research

31. Language

32. Final Points
• Ensure your introduction reflects what your main body is about
• Introductions and conclusions can vary in structure in detail : subject specific
• Use a clear structure for your introductions and conclusions : identify the
function of each sentence
• Use appropriate language to connect the sentences together
• A long introduction will be more detailed but will usually contain the same
as a shorter one