Process

The Trade Relationship

• Trade financing shares a number of common characteristics with
the traditional value chain activities conducted by all firms.
• All companies must search out suppliers for the many goods and
services required as inputs to their own goods production or
service provision processes.
• Issues to consider in this process include the capability of
suppliers to produce the product to adequate specifications,
deliver said products in a timely fashion, and to work in
conjunction on product enhancements and continuous process
improvement.
• All of the above must also be at an acceptable price and payment
terms.

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. 23-2

The Trade Relationship

• The nature of the relationship between the exporter and
the importer is critical to understanding the methods
for import-export financing utilized in industry.
• There are three categories of relationships (see next
exhibit):
– Unaffiliated unknown
– Unaffiliated known
– Affiliated (sometimes referred to as intra-firm trade)
• The composition of global trade has changed
dramatically over the past few decades, moving from
transactions between unaffiliated parties to affiliated
transactions.

Exhibit 23.1 Alternative International
Trade Relationships

Exporter

Importer is ….

Unaffiliated Unaffiliated Affiliated
Unknown Party Known Party Party

A new customer A long-term customer A foreign subsidiary
which with exporter has with which there is an or affiliate
no historical business established relationship of of exporter
relationship trust and performance

Requires: Requires: Requires:
1. A contract 1. A contract 1. No contract
2. Protection against 2. Possibly some protection 2. No protection against
non-payment against non-payment non-payment 23-4

The Trade Dilemma

• International trade (i.e. between and importer and
exporter) must work around a fundamental dilemma:
– They live far apart
– They speak different languages
– They operate in different political environments
– They have different religions
– They have different standards for honoring
obligations
• In essence, there could be distrust, and clearly the
importer and exporter would prefer two different
arrangements for payment/goods transfer (next exhibit)

Exhibit 23.2 The Mechanics of Import and Export

1st: Exporter ships the goods

Importer Importer Preference Exporter

2nd: Importer pays after goods received

1st: Importer pays for goods

Importer Exporter Preference Exporter

2nd: Exporter ships the goods after being paid
23-6

The Trade Dilemma

• The fundamental dilemma of being unwilling
to trust a stranger in a foreign land is solved by
using a highly respected bank as an
intermediary.
• The following exhibit is a simplified view
involving a letter of credit (a bank’s promise to
pay) on behalf of the importer.
• Two other significant documents are an order
bill of lading and a sight draft.


Exhibit 23.3 The Bank as the Import/Export Intermediary
1st: Importer obtains bank’s promise
to pay on importer’s behalf.
Importer
6th: Importer pays
the bank.

2nd: Bank promises exporter
to pay on behalf of importer.
Bank
5th: Bank ‘gives’ merchandise
to the importer. 4th: Bank pays the
exporter.

Exporter
3rd: Exporter ships ‘to the bank’
trusting bank’s promise. 23-8

Benefits of the System

• The system (including the three
documents discussed) has been
developed and modified over centuries to
protect both importer and exporter from:
– The risk of noncompletion
– Foreign exchange risk
– To provide a means of financing


Elements of an Import/Export
Transaction
• Each individual trade transaction must cover three
basic elements: description of goods, prices, and
documents regarding shipping and delivery
instructions.
• Contracts:
– An import or export transaction is by definition a contractual
exchange between parties in two countries that may have
different legal systems, currencies, languages, religions or
units of measure
– All contracts should include definitions and specifications for
the quality, grade, quantity, and price of the goods in question


Transaction
• Prices:
– Price quotations can be a major source of
confusion
– Price terms in the contract should conform
to published catalogs, specify whether
quantity discounts or early payment
discounts are in effect, and state whether
finance charges are relevant in the case of
deferred payment, and should address other
relevant fees or charges


Transaction
• Documents:
– Bill of lading – issued to the exporter by a common carrier
transporting the merchandise
– Commercial invoice – issued by the exporter and contains a
precise description of the merchandise (also indicates unit
prices, financial terms of the sale etc.)
– Insurance documents – specified in the contract of sale and
issued by insurance companies (or their agents)
– Consular invoices – issued in the exporting country by the
consulate of the importing country
– Packing lists


International Trade Risks

• The following exhibit illustrates the sequence
of events in a single export transaction.
• From a financial management perspective, the
two primary risks associated with an
international trade transaction are currency risk
(currency denomination of payment) and risk
of non-completion (timely and complete
payment).
• The risk of default on the part of the importer
is present as soon as the financing period
begins.

Exhibit 23.4 The Trade Transaction Time-Line
and Structure
Time and Events

Price Export Goods Documents Goods Cash
quote contract are are are settlement
request signed shipped accepted received of the
transaction

Negotiations Backlog

Documents Are
Presented

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. Financing Period 23-14

Letter of Credit (L/C)

• A letter of credit (L/C) is a bank’s conditional
promise to pay issued by a bank at the request
of an importer, in which the bank promises to
pay an exporter upon presentation of
documents specified in the L/C.
• An L/C reduces the risk of noncompletion
because the bank agrees to pay against
documents rather than actual merchandise.
• The following exhibit shows the relationship
between the three parties.

Exhibit 23.5 Parties to a Letter of Credit (L/C)

Issuing Bank

The relationship between the
The relationship between the
importer and the issuing bank is
issuing bank and the exporter
governed by the terms of the
is governed by the terms of the
application and agreement
letter of credit, as issued by
for the letter of credit (L/C).
that bank.

Beneficiary Applicant
(exporter) (importer)

The relationship between the importer and the
exporter is governed by the sales contract. 23-16


• The essence of the L/C is the promise of the issuing bank to pay
against specified documents, which must accompany any draft drawn
against the credit.
• To constitute a true L/C transaction, all of the following five elements
must be present with respect to the issuing bank:
– Must receive a fee or other valid business consideration for issuing
the L/C
– The L/C must contain a specified expiration date or definite
maturity
– The bank’s commitment must have a stated maximum amount of
money
– The bank’s obligation to pay must arise only on the presentation of
specific documents
– The bank’s customer must have an unqualified obligation to
reimburse the bank on the same condition as the bank has paid


• Commercial letters of credit are also classified:
– Irrevocable versus revocable
– Confirmed versus unconfirmed
• The primary advantage of an L/C is that it reduces risk
– the exporter can sell against a bank’s promise to pay
rather than against the promise of a commercial firm.
• The major advantage of an L/C to an importer is that
the importer need not pay out funds until the
documents have arrived at the bank that issued the L/C
and after all conditions stated in the credit have been
fulfilled.


Exhibit 23.6 Essence of a Letter of Credit (L/C)

Bank of the East, Ltd.
[Name of Issuing Bank]
Date: September 18, 2003
L/C Number 123456
Bank of the East, Ltd. hereby issues this irrevocable documentary Letter of Credit
to Jones Company [name of exporter] for US$500,000, payable 90 days after sight
by a draft drawn against Bank of the East, Ltd., in accordance with Letter of
Credit number 123456.

The draft is to be accompanied by the following documents:

1. Commercial invoice in triplicate
2. Packing list
3. Clean on board order bill of lading
4. Insurance documents, paid for by buyer
At maturity Bank of the East, Ltd. will pay the face amount of the draft to
the
Authorized Signature
bearer of that draft.

Draft

• A draft, sometimes called a bill of exchange (B/E), is
the instrument normally used in international
commerce to effect payment.
• A draft is simply an order written by an exporter
(seller) instructing and importer (buyer) or its agent to
pay a specified amount of money at a specified time.
• The person or business initiating the draft is known as
the maker, drawer, or originator.
• Normally this is the exporter who sells and ships the
merchandise.
• The party to whom the draft is addressed is the drawee.


Draft

• If properly drawn, drafts can become negotiable instruments.
• As such, they provide a convenient instrument for financing the
international movement of merchandise (freely bought and sold).
• To become a negotiable instrument, a draft must conform to the
following four requirements:
– It must be in writing and signed by the maker or drawer
– It must contain an unconditional promise or order to pay a
definite sum of money
– It must be payable on demand or at a fixed or determinable
future date
– It must be payable to order or to bearer
• There are time drafts and sight drafts.


Exhibit 23.7 Essence of a Time Draft

Name of Exporter
Date: October 10, 2003
Draft number 7890

Ninety (90) days after sight of this First of Exchange, pay to the order of Bank
of the West [name of exporter’s bank] the sum of Five-hundred thousand U.S.
dollars for value received under Bank of the East, Ltd. letter of credit
number 123456.

Signature of Exporter


Bill of Lading (B/L)

• The third key document for financing
international trade is the bill of lading or B/L.
• The bill of lading is issued to the exporter by a
common carrier transporting the merchandise.
• It serves three purposes: a receipt, a contract,
and a document of title.
• Bills of lading are either straight or to order.


Documentation in a Typical
Trade Transaction
• A trade transaction could conceivably be
handled in many ways.
• The transaction that would best illustrate the
interactions of the various documents would be
an export financed under a documentary
commercial letter of credit, requiring an order
bill of lading, with the exporter collecting via a
time draft accepted by the importer’s bank.
• The following exhibit illustrates such a
transaction.

Exhibit 23.8 Steps in a Typical Trade Transaction
3. Importer
1. Importer orders goods
arranges L/C
with its bank

2. Exporter agrees to fill order

Exporter Importer
6. Exporter ships goods to Importer

7. Exporter presents 12. Bank I obtains
draft and documents importer’s note
11. Bank X 13. Importer
to its bank, Bank X and releases shipment
pays pays
exporter its bank

8. Bank X presents draft and
documents to Bank I

Bank X Bank I
9. Bank I accepts draft, promising to pay in 60
days, and returns accepted draft to Bank X
5. Bank X
4. Bank I sends
advises
L/C to Bank X Public
exporter
of L/C 10. Bank X sells Investor 14. Investor presents acceptance
acceptance to investor and is paid by Bank I 23-25

Government Programs
to Help Finance Exports
• Governments of most export-oriented industrialized countries
have special financial institutions that provide some form of
subsidized credit to their own national exporters.
• These export finance institutions offer terms that are better than
those generally available from the competitive private sector.
• Thus domestic taxpayers are subsidizing lower financial costs for
foreign buyers in order to create employment and maintain a
technological edge.
• The most important institutions usually offer export credit
insurance and a government-supported bank for export financing.


Trade Financing Alternatives

• In order to finance international trade
receivables, firms use the same financing
instruments as they use for domestic trade
receivables, plus a few specialized instruments
that are only available for financing
international trade.
• There are short-term financing instruments and
longer-term instruments in addition to the use
of various types of barter to substitute for these
instruments.


Forfaiting

• Forfaiting is a specialized technique to eliminate the
risk of nonpayment by importers in instances where the
importing firm and/or its government is perceived by
the exporter to be too risky for open account credit.
• The following exhibit illustrates a typical forfaiting
transaction (involving five parties – importer, exporter,
forfaiter, investor and the importers bank).
• The essence of forfaiting is the non-recourse sale by an
exporter of bank-guaranteed promissory notes, bills of
exchange, or similar documents received from an
importer in another country.


Exhibit 23.10 Typical Forfaiting Transaction

Exporter
Step 1 Importer
(private industrial firm) (private firm or government
purchaser in emerging market)

Step 2 Step 4

FORFAITER
(subsidiary of a Step 3
Step 5 European bank)

Step 6

Investor Importer’s Bank
(institutional or individual) Step 7 (usually a private bank in
the importer’s country

23-29

Countertrade

• The word countertrade refers to a variety of
international trade arrangements in which goods and
services are exported by a manufacturer with
compensation linked to that manufacturer accepting
imports of other goods and services.
• In other words, an export sale is tied by contract to an
import.
• The countertrade may take place at the same time as
the original export, in which case credit is not an issue;
or the countertrade may take place later, in which case
financing becomes important.


Process

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