1. KEIKO MUTO
Heldina Pristanti
Sekta Lonir Oscarini Wati Bhakti
Sunarmi
Sukmawati
Theresia Hilda Kayani

2. Introduction
 Language learners will need to develop the full
range of lexical strategies to improve their
communicative competence, lexical knowledge
must be considered essential to L2 learners.

3. Introduction
 The aim
To investigate how a working knowledge of
discourse – organizing vocabulary, especially
lexical cohesion, can help EFL students is
reading and writing.

4. Previous study
 DeCarrico (2001)
Learners should initially be taught a large
productive vocabulary of at least two thousand
high-frequency words. Low-frequency words can
be acquire while L2 learners are exposed to
reading/listening
 Clarke and Nation (1980)
Low-frequency words can be learned by practicing
guessing new word meaning through clue words
found in discourse. By guessing the word
meanings through the knowledge of basic
vocabulary, L2 learners can interpret discourse
more precisely.

5. Discourse Organizing Vocabulary
Lexical items can have a significant structuring
role in texts
 Winter (1977) points out, co-
ordinating/subordinating conjunctions , and
adverbials can be clue items to understand the
lexical relationship in discourse.
 Halliday & Hasan (1976) add “general noun” to
pronouns, which means “a small set of nouns
having generalized reference within the major
noun classes, those such as “human noun,”
“place noun,” “fact noun’ and the like”

6. Discourse Organizing Vocabulary
 Francis (1994) categorizes referring words into
two groups that provides the frame of
reference within which the subsequent
argument is developed. These labels will help
the reader to collect information to understand
the text:”
Advance label means cataphoric words that allow
the reader to predict the precise information that
will follow
Retrospective label means anaphoric that indicates
to the reader “exactly how that stretch of discourse
is to be interpreted

7. Discourse Organizing Vocabulary
 Knowledge of discourse organizing
vocabulary might complement L2 learners’
lack of vocabulary and assist them in text
interpretation

8. Lexical Items
 It is the best way to find out what the lexical
item semantically. It is to consider how
terms of meaning in discourse
Halliday & Hasan (1976) categorize lexical item
into groups:
○ Grammatical Cohesion: reference, substitution,
ellipsis, and conjunction
○ Lexical Cohesion: reiteration and collocation
 The semantic relationship between lexical
items can be considered to be lexical
cohesion

9. Lexical Cohesion
 Halliday & Hasan (1976) classify
reiteration into four types: the same
word, a synonym/near synonym,
superordinate, and general word
A boy
○ The boy  the same word
○ The lad  synonym/near synonym
○ The child  a superordinate
○ The idiot  a general word

10. Lexical Cohesion
 Halliday & Hasan (1976) states that collocation
is an important part of creating cohesion in
connected text. Collocation refers to the
semantic and structural relation among words,
which native speakers can use subconsciously
for comprehension or production of a text

11. Lexical Cohesion
COHESIVE
FORCE
COHESIVE
TIE
COHESIVE ITEM IN A
ITEM TEXT

12. Lexical Cohesion
 The means by which text are linguistically
connected ….Carter 1998
 Cannot exist without sentence
 A set of “discourse semantic
system”….Martin 2001

13. Lexical Cohesion and Text
 Lexical cohesion is not always necessary
for text to produce semantic relation
between sentence..Brown & Yule. 1980
A: There’s the doorbell
B: I’m in the bath

14. Lexical Cohesion and Text
 Text can exist without lexical cohesion,
though lexical cohesion cannot exist without
text..Brown & Yule.1983
I bought a Ford. A car in which President Wilson
rode down the Champs Elysees was black. Black
English has been widely discussed. The Discussions
between the presidents ended last week. A week has
seven days. Every day. I feed my cat.. Cats have four
legs. The cat is on the mat. Mat has three letters.

15. Methodology
 Instrument
Reading  three short stories
Writing  one kind of written exercises
 Subject
80 students of two extensive reading class at
a university in Nagoya, Japan

16. Reading Activity
 The instruments were designed to encourage
the students to collect the necessary
information in a text to understand the story
more accurately by paying attention to lexical
cohesion.
To find the place of story
To find the time
To find the character traits
Those clues were expected to indicate the degree
to which students could use the Knowledge of
cohesion for the interpretation of stories.

17. Writing Activity
 It is designed to investigate how much
students make use of cohesion in their
writing. After reading the story, the
students were asked to write a sequel to
the story.

18. Discussion: Analysis and Results

19. Discussion: Analysis and Results
Reading Activity
 Exercise 1: Understanding the place
This exercise was designed to introduce students to
the knowledge of the relationship among
word/phrases in the text.
Students were requested to select words delivering
the necessary information concerning ‘place’ in the
first page
The result
○ The mistakes were made by the students were
because of the lack of cultural knowledge prevented
them from determining lexical cohesion

20. Discussion: Analysis and Results
Reading Activity
 Exercise 2: Understanding time
The students were requested to find clue
words determining time in the story.
The result
○ 22 students who could answer correctly, could
make cohesion by collecting clue items beyond
the first page

21. Discussion: Analysis and Results
Reading Activity
 Exercise 3: Understanding the Main Character
The students were requested to explain the main
character at the first and show clue items which are
used to understand the main character
The results
○ The students used different clue words but have the
same answer. It means that the students could
understand and build lexical cohesion in a text to find
the main character’s traits.

22. Discussion: Analysis and Results
Writing Activity
 The students constructed the plot of their
story. The students are helped by the
researcher by giving the aid as the knowledge
of lexical cohesion
 The results
The knowledge of lexical cohesion can help
students interpret the story, develop vocabulary
and give coherence to their writing

23. Conclusion
 In reading activity, the result of the
analysis showed the considerable effect
that the knowledge of lexical cohesion has
on their understanding of the story

24. Conclusion
 How to improve the general knowledge of
lexical cohesion in reading
 Acquiring cultural knowledge
 Expanding the area of lexical cohesion
 Creating original cohesion
 Expanding the area of lexical cohesion to the whole text
 Creating original cohesion
 Comprehending that collocationally linked words in an argument
can be related to the writer’s evaluation
 Knowledge of lexical cohesion can help
students in comprehending the coherence of
the story as well

25. Conclusion
 In the Writing Activity, students made use
of their knowledge of lexical cohesion for
interpreting the story and effectively
applied it to writing a story.
 By using lexical cohesion, students’
stories showed a more varied vocabulary
and coherent plot.
 A knowledge of lexical cohesion helped
students to write more effectively

26. Critical Evaluation
 Strong point
It has a strong background about the lexical
cohesion in reading and writing
It uses several clear literature to support the article
It can improve the vocabulary of the students by
knowing the lexical cohesion
The findings of the article can help the readers to
implicate it in the teaching and learning process

27. Critical Evaluation
 Weak Point
No detail steps in conducting test. The amount of
time in reading and writing activities was not
mentioned
It was not shown precisely about the subject of the
research. It only said that they were from a
university in Nagoya, Japan
It does not give enough examples and data to
explain the lexical cohesion

28. How can the article be improved
 The writer should give more detailed
examples and data, that can support the
experiments.
 Statistic data should be provided in this
article.
 Hypothesis should be explained more
detailed.