One of the most influential neo-Freudians, Carl Jung (pronounced “yoong”), rejected the notion of the primary importance of unconscious sexual urges. Instead he looked at the primitive urges of the unconscious more positively, suggesting that people had a collective unconscious , a set of influences we inherit from our own relatives, the whole human race, and even nonhuman animal ancestors from the distant past. This collective unconscious is shared by everyone and is displayed by behavior that is common across diverse cultures—such as love of mother, belief in a supreme being, and even behavior as specific as a fear of snakes. Jung went on to propose that the collective unconscious contains archetypes , universal symbolic representations of a particular person, object, or experience. For instance, a mother archetype, which contains reflections of our ancestors’ relationships with mother figures, is suggested by the prevalence of mothers in art, religion, literature, and mythology. Jung also suggested that men possess an unconscious feminine archetype affecting how they behave, while women have a male archetype that colors their behavior. Alfred Adler proposed that the primary human motivation was a striving for superiority, not in terms of superiority over others, but as a quest to achieve self-improvement and perfection. Adler used the term inferiority complex to describe situations in which adults have not been able to overcome the feelings of inferiority that they developed as children, when they were small and limited in their knowledge about the world. Other neo-Freudians, such as Erik Erikson (whose theory we discussed in Chapters 12 and 13), Freud’s own daughter Anna Freud, and Karen Horney (1937), also focused less than Freud on inborn sexual and aggressive drives and more on the social and cultural factors behind personality. Horney was one of the first psychologists who championed women’s issues. She suggested that personality develops in terms of social relationships and depends particularly on the relationship between parents and child and how well the child’s needs were met. She rejected Freud’s suggestion that women had penis envy, asserting that what women envied most in men was not their anatomy but the independence, success, and freedom that women were often denied.
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