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Memory - Form and function
1. Chairperson
Dr. T. Kumanan MD., DPM, Professor
Dr. S. J. X. Sugadev MD., Assistant Professor
Slide 1
Presented by
Dr. A. M. Anusa
First Year PG
Prepared by
Prof. Rooban T,
Oral & Maxillofacial Pathologist
2. Origin of word from
Greek God - Mnemosyne
Slide 2
3. Neurobiology of memory
Identifying where and how different types of
information are stored
Hypothesis by Hebb
Memory results from synaptic alterations
Study of simple invertebrates
Synaptic alterations underlie memories
(procedural)
Electrical stimulation of brain
Experimentally produce measurable synaptic
alterations - dissect mechanisms
Slide 3
4. Declarative and procedural
memories
Nonassociative Learning
Habituation
▪ Learning to ignore
stimulus that lacks
meaning
Sensitization
▪ Learning to intensify
response to stimuli
Slide 4
6. Associative Learning (Cont’d)
Classical Conditioning
▪ Associates a stimulus that evokes response-
unconditional stimulus with second stimulus that
does not evoke response- conditional stimulus
Instrumental Conditioning
▪ Experiment by Edward Thorndike
▪ Complex neural circuits due to motivation
Slide 6
7. Experimental advantages in using
invertebrate nervous systems
Small nervous systems
Large neurons
Identifiable neurons
Identifiable circuits
Simple genetics
Slide 7
12. The molecular basis for classical
conditioning in Aplysia
Slide 12
13. Neural basis of memory learned from
invertebrate studies
Learning and memory can result from
modifications of synaptic transmission
Synaptic modifications can be triggered by
conversion of neural activity into intracellular
second messengers
Memories can result from alterations in
existing synaptic proteins
Slide 13
14. Synaptic Plasticity in the Cerebellar Cortex
Cerebellum: Important site for motor learning
Anatomy of the Cerebellar Cortex
▪ Features of Purkinje cells
▪ Dendrites extend only into molecular layer
▪ Cell axons synapse on deep cerebellar nuclei neurons
▪ GABA as a neurotransmitter
Slide 14
16. Synaptic Plasticity in the Cerebellar Cortex
Long-Term Depression in the Cerebellar Cortex
Slide 16
17. Synaptic Plasticity in the Cerebellar Cortex
(Cont’d)
Long-Term Depression in the Cerebellar Cortex
(Cont’d)
▪ Cerebellar LTD and Classical Conditioning in Aplysia
▪ Similarity: Input-specific synaptic modification
▪ Dissimilarity: Site of convergence and nature of synaptic
changes
Slide 17
18. Synaptic Plasticity in the Cerebellar Cortex
(Cont’d)
Mechanisms of cerebellar LTD
▪ Learning
▪ Rise in [Ca2+]i and [Na+]i and the activation of protein
kinase C
▪ Memory
▪ Internalized AMPA channels and depressed excitatory
postsynaptic currents
Slide 18
19. Synaptic Plasticity in the Hippocampus
LTP and LTD
▪ Key to forming declarative memories in the brain
Bliss and Lomo
▪ High frequency electrical stimulation of excitatory
pathway
Anatomy of Hippocampus
▪ Brain slice preparation: Study of LTD and LTP
Slide 19
20. Synaptic Plasticity in the Hippocampus
(Cont’d)
Anatomy of the Hippocampus
Slide 20
21. Synaptic Plasticity in the Hippocampus
(Cont’d)
Properties of LTP in CA1
Slide 21
22. Synaptic Plasticity in
the Hippocampus
(Cont’d)
Mechanisms of LTP in
CA1
▪ Glutamate receptors
mediate excitatory
synaptic transmission
▪ NMDARs and AMPARs
Slide 22
23. Synaptic Plasticity in the Hippocampus
(Cont’d)
Long-Term Depression in CA1
Slide 23
24. Synaptic Plasticity in the
Hippocampus (Cont’d)
BCM theory
▪ When the postsynaptic cell
is weakly depolarized by
other inputs: Active
synapses undergo LTD
instead of LTP
▪ Accounts for bidirectional
synaptic changes (up or
down)
Slide 24
25. Synaptic Plasticity in the Hippocampus
(Cont’d)
LTP, LTD, and Glutamate Receptor Trafficking
▪ Stable synaptic transmission: AMPA receptors are
replaced maintaining the same number
▪ LTD and LTP disrupt equilibrium
▪ Bidirectional regulation of phosphorylation
Slide 25
28. Synaptic Plasticity in the Hippocampus (Cont’d)
LTP, LTD, and Memory
▪ Tonegawa, Silva, and colleagues
▪ Genetic “knockout” mice
▪ Consequences of genetic deletions (e.g., CaMK11
subunit)
▪ Advances (temporal and spatial control)
▪ Limitations of using genetic mutants to study
LTP/learning: secondary consequences
Slide 28
29. Phosphorylation as a long term
mechanism: Problematic
(transient and turnover rates)
Persistently Active Protein Kinases
Phosphorylation maintained:
Kinases stay “on”
▪ CaMKII and LTP
▪ Molecular switch hypothesis
Slide 29
30. Protein Synthesis
Requirement of long-term memory
▪ Synthesis of new protein
Protein Synthesis and Memory Consolidation
▪ Protein synthesis inhibitors
▪ Deficits in learning and memory
CREB and Memory
▪ CREB: Cyclic AMP response element binding protein
Slide 30
31. Protein Synthesis (Cont’d)
Structural Plasticity and Memory
▪ Long-term memory associated with formation of
new synapses
▪ Rat in complex environment: Shows increase in
number of neuron synapses by about 25%
Slide 31
32. Learning and memory
Occur at synapses
Unique features of Ca2+
Critical for neurotransmitter secretion and
muscle contraction, every form of synaptic
plasticity
Charge-carrying ion plus a potent second
messenger
▪ Can couple electrical activity with long-term changes
in brain
Slide 32
34. Chapter 6 – Human Memory:
Encoding and Storage
35. First rigorous investigation of human
memory – 1885.
Taught himself nonsense syllables
DAX, BUP, LOC
Savings – the amount of time needed to
relearn a list after it has already been
learned and forgotten.
Forgetting function – most forgetting
takes place right away.
36. Atkinson & Shiffrin – proposed a three-
stage model including:
Sensory store – if attended goes to STM
Short-term memory (STM) – if rehearsed goes
to LTM
Long-term memory (LTM)
No longer the current view of memory.
Still presented in some books.
39. Holds info when it first comes in.
Allows a person to extract meaning from
an image or series of sounds.
Sperling’s partial report procedure:
A display of three rows of letters is presented.
After it is taken away, a tone signals which
row to report.
Subjects were able to report most letters.
42. Iconic memory – visual
Bright postexposure field wipes out memory
after 1 sec, dark after 5 sec.
Echoic memory – auditory
Lasts up to 10 sec (measured by ERP)
Located in the sensory cortexes.
43. The original idea is that when info in
sensory memory is paid attention to,
it moves into short term memory.
With rehearsal, it then moves into
long term memory.
STM has limited capacity, called
memory span.
Miller’s magic number (7 ± 2)
New info pushes out older info (Shepard)
45. Rate of forgetting seemed to be quicker
than Ebbinghaus’s data, but is not really.
Amount of rehearsal appeared to be
related to transfer to long-term memory.
Later it was found that the kind of rehearsal
matters, not the amount.
Passive rehearsal does little to achieve long-
term memory.
Information may go directly to LTM.
46. Craik & Lockhart – proposed that it is not
how long material is rehearsed but the
depth of processing that matters.
Levels of processing demo.
47. Baddeley – in working memory speed of
rehearsal determines memory span.
Articulatory loop – stores whatever can be
processed in a given amount of time.
Word length effect: 4.5 one-syllable words
remembered compared to 2.6 long ones.
1.5 to 2 seconds material can be kept.
Visuopatial sketchpad – rehearses images.
Central executive – controls other systems.
48.
49. Delayed Matching to Sample – monkey
must recall where food was placed.
Monkeys with lesion to frontal cortex cannot
remember food location.
Human infants can’t do it until 1 year old.
Regions of frontal cortex fire only during
the delay – keeping location in mind.
Different prefrontal regions are used to
remember different kinds of information.
50.
51. In primates, working memory is localized
to the frontal cortex.
Delayed matching to sample task:
Monkeys are shown food that is then hidden.
Later they are given a chance to locate it.
Monkeys with frontal lobe lesions cannot
do this task.
52. Activation – how available information is
to memory:
Probability of access – how likely you are to
remember something.
Rate of access – how fast something can be
remembered.
From moment to moment, items differ in
their degree of activation in memory.
53. ACT – Adaptive Control of Thought
Moses Effect -- subjects shown the
words Bible, animal and flood should
recall Noah but recall Moses instead.
When given the word flood they think of
Mississippi or Johnstown but not Noah.
Why? Recall is based on both baseline
and activation from associated
concepts.
Moses and Jesus have higher baselines.
54.
55. How recently we have used the memory:
Loftus – manipulated amount of delay
1.53 sec first time, then 1.21, 1.28, and 1.33
with 3 items intervening.
How much we have practiced the memory
– how frequently it is used.
Anderson’s study (sailor is in the park)
56. Activation spreads along the paths of a
propositional network.
Related items are faster to recall.
Associative priming – involuntary spread
of activation to associated items in
memory.
Kaplan’s dissertation – cues to solving riddles
hidden in the environment led to faster
solutions.
57. Meyer & Schvaneveldt – spreading
activation affects how quickly words are
read.
Subjects judged whether pairs of related &
unrelated items were words.
Judgments about related words were faster.
58.
59. The amount of spreading activation
depends on the strength of a memory.
Memory strength increases with practice.
Greater memory strength increases the
likelihood of recall.
60. Each time we use a memory trace, it
gradually becomes a little stronger.
Power law of learning:
T = 1.40 P-0.24
T is recognition time, P is days of practice.
Linear when plotted on log-log scale.
61.
62.
63. Neural changes may occur with practice:
Long-term potentiation (LTP) in
hippocampus.
Repeated electrical stimulation of neurons
leads to increased sensitivity.
LTP changes are a power function.
64.
65. Better memory occurs for items with
stronger brain processing at the time of
study:
Words evoking higher ERP signals are better
remembered later.
Greater frontal activation with deeper
processing of verbal information.
Greater activation of hippocampus with better
long-term memory.
66. Words activate left
prefrontal cortex
Pictures activate right
prefrontal cortex
Hemodynamic =
blow flow during
brain activity
67. Study alone does not improve memory –
what matters is how studying is done.
Shallow study results in little improvement.
Semantic associates (tulip-flower) better
remembered than rhymes (tower-flower),
81% vs 70%.
Better retention occurs for more
meaningful elaboration.
68. Elaboration – embellishing an item with
additional information.
Anderson & Bower – subjects added
details to simple sentences:
57% recall without elaboration
72% recall with made-up details added
Self-generated elaborations are better
than experimenter-generated ones.
69. Stein & Bransford – subjects were given
10 sentences. Four conditions:
Just the sentences alone – 4.2 adjectives
Subject generates an elaboration – 5.8
Experimenter-generated imprecise elaboration
– 2.2
Experimenter-generated precise elaboration –
7.8
Precision of detail (constraint) matters,
not who generates the elaboration.
70. PQ4R method – use questions to guide
reading.
64% correct, compared to 57% (controls)
76% of relevant questions correct, 52% of
non-relevant.
These study techniques work because
they encourage elaboration.
Question making and question answering both
improve memory for text (reviewing is better
than seeing the questions first).
71. Elaboration need not be meaningful –
other sorts of elaboration also work.
Kolers compared memory for right-side-up
sentences with upside-down.
Extra processing needed to read upside down
may enhance memory.
Slamecka & Graf – compared generation
of synonyms and rhymes. Both improved
memory, but synonyms did more.
72.
73. Method of Loci – place items in a location,
then take a mental walk.
Peg-word System – use peg words as a
structure and associate a list of items with
them using visualization.
Create acronyms for lists of items.
Convert nonsense syllables (DAX, GIB)
into meaningful items by associating them
with real words (e.g., DAD).
75. 1 – bun
2 – shoe
3 – tree
4 – door
5 – hive
6 – sticks
7 – heaven
8 – gate
9 – wine
10 -- hen
76. It does not matter whether people intend
to learn something or not.
What matters is how material is processed.
Orienting tasks:
Count whether work has e or g.
Rate the pleasantness of words.
Half of subjects told they would be asked to
remember words later, half not told.
No advantage to knowing ahead of time.
77.
78. Self-reference effect -- people have better
memory for events that are important to
them and close friends.
Flashbulb memories – recall of traumatic
events long after the fact.
Seem vivid but can be very inaccurate.
Thatcher’s resignation:
60% memory for UK subjects, 20% non-UK
79. Two explanations:
People have special mechanisms for encoding
info relevant to themselves.
Info relevant to the self is rehearsed more
often.
High arousal may enhance memory.
Memory is better for words related to the
self – perhaps due to better elaboration.
80. University of Southern Mississippi
Department of Psychology
Dr. David J. Echevarria, PhD
Spring 2008
david.echevarria@usm.edu
www.usm.edu/neurolab
Chapter 7 Memory
81.
82. Chapter 6 is on learning
Chapter 7 is on memory
How is memory related to learning???
83. Think about all the times in one day
you rely on your memory:
When is my next class?
Did I pay my rent?
Where did I park my car?
When is my boy/girl friend’s birthday?
Performance on exams
84. Tip of the tongue
Did you ever say, “I can’t remember”
only to actually “remember” later on?
How easily are they accessed?
What can interfere with memory?
85. Memory span: Number of items that
can be recalled from short-term
memory, in order, on half of the tested
memory trials
It’s about 7 plus or minus 2 items
Not absolute; also depends on:
How quickly items can be rehearsed
Chunking
▪ Rearranging incoming information into
meaningful or familiar patterns
86. Several distinct mechanisms:
Phonological loop: Like the inner voice; stores
word sounds
Visuospatial sketchpad: Stores visual and
spatial information
Central executive: Determines which
mechanism to use, coordinates among them
Brain damage can selectively affect a
single mechanism
87. How does information get into memory?
How is information maintained in
memory?
How is information pulled back out of
memory?
93. Above is a scanpath of one reader over a broadsheet newspaper spread. The reader
turned pages in her own pace, and read the entire newspaper.
This is quite typical data. The texts are read no deeper than 40 % of their lengths.
Very short looks on photos and long looks on information graphics.
http://www.sol.lu.se/humlab/eyetracking/
Scanning a Scene
95. Elaboration = linking a stimulus to other
information at the time of encoding
Thinking of examples
Visual Imagery = creation of visual
images to represent words to be
remembered
Easier for concrete objects: Dual-coding theory
Self-Referent Encoding
Making information personally meaningful
96. Analogy: information storage in computers
~ information storage in human memory
Information-processing theories
Subdivide memory into 3 different stores
▪ Sensory, Short-term, Long-term
97. Figure 7.7 The Atkinson and Schiffrin model of memory storage
98. Brief preservation of information in
original sensory form
Auditory/Visual – approximately ¼
second
George Sperling (1960)
▪ Classic experiment on visual sensory store
100. Limited capacity – magical number 7
plus or minus 2
Chunking – grouping familiar stimuli for
storage as a single unit
Limited duration – about 20
seconds without rehearsal
Rehearsal – the process of repetitively
verbalizing or thinking about the
information
102. STM not limited to phonemic encoding
Loss of information not only due to decay
Baddeley (1986) – 3 components of
working memory
Phonological rehearsal loop
Visuospatial sketchpad
Executive control system
103. Permanent storage?
Flashbulb memories
Recall through hypnosis
Debate: are STM and LTM really different?
Phonemic vs. Semantic encoding
Decay vs. Interference based forgetting
104. Clustering and Conceptual Hierarchies
Schemas and Scripts
Semantic Networks
Connectionist Networks and PDP Models
105. The tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon – a
failure in retrieval
Retrieval cues
Recalling an event
Context cues
Reconstructing memories
Misinformation effect
▪ Source monitoring, reality monitoring
106. Retention – the proportion of material
retained
Recall
Recognition
Relearning
Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting Curve
120. Engage in adequate rehearsal
Distribute practice and minimize
interference
Emphasize deep processing and transfer-
appropriate processing
Organize information
Use verbal mnemonics
Use visual mnemonics
122. Neurobiology of memory
Identifying where and how different types of
information are stored
Hebb
Memory results from synaptic modification
Study of simple invertebrates
Synaptic alterations underlie memories
(procedural)
Electrical stimulation of brain
Experimentally produce measurable synaptic
alterations - dissect mechanisms
123. Procedural memories amenable to
investigation
Nonassociative Learning
Habituation
▪ Learning to ignore stimulus
that lacks meaning
Sensitization
▪ Learning to intensify response
to stimuli
124. Associative Learning
Classical Conditioning: Pair an unconditional
stimulus (UC) with a conditional stimulus (CS)
to get a conditioned response (CR)
125. Associative Learning (Cont’d)
Instrumental Conditioning
▪ Learn to associate a response with a meaningful
stimulus, e.g., reward lever pressing for food
▪ Complex neural circuits related to role played by
motivation
126. Experimental advantages in using
invertebrate nervous systems
Small nervous systems
Large neurons
Identifiable neurons
Identifiable circuits
Simple genetics
128. Nonassociative Learning in Aplysia (Cont’d)
Habituation results from presynaptic modification at L7
129. Nonassociative Learning in Aplysia (Cont’d)
Repeated electrical stimulation of a sensory neuron leads to a
progressively smaller EPSP in the postsynaptic motor neuron
130. Nonassociative Learning in Aplysia (Cont’d)
Sensitization of the Gill-Withdrawal Reflex involves L29 axoaxonic
synapse
131. Nonassociative Learning in Aplysia
(Cont’d)
5-HT released by L29 in response
to head shock leads to G-protein
coupled activation of adenylyl
cyclase in sensory axon terminal.
Cyclic AMP production activates
protein kinase A.
Phosphate groups attach to a
potassium channel, causing it to
close
132. Nonassociative Learning in Aplysia
(Cont’d)
Effect of decreased potassium
conductance in sensory axon
terminal
More calcium ions admitted into
terminal and more transmitter
release
133. Associative Learning in Aplysia
Classical conditioning: CS initially
produces no response but after
pairing with US, causes withdrawal
134. • The molecular basis for classical conditioning in Aplysia
– Pairing CS and US causes greater activation of adenylyl cyclase
because CS admits Ca2+ into the presynaptic terminal
135. Neural basis of memory: principles
learned from invertebrate studies
Learning and memory can result from
modifications of synaptic transmission
Synaptic modifications can be triggered by
conversion of neural activity into intracellular
second messengers
Memories can result from alterations in
existing synaptic proteins
136. Synaptic Plasticity in the Cerebellar Cortex
Cerebellum: Important site for motor learning
Anatomy of the Cerebellar Cortex
▪ Features of Purkinje cells
▪ Dendrites extend only into molecular layer
▪ Cell axons synapse on deep cerebellar nuclei neurons
▪ GABA as a neurotransmitter
138. • Cancellation of expected reafference in the electrosensory
cerebellum of skates- synaptic plasticity at parallel fiber
synapses.
139. Synaptic Plasticity in the Cerebellar Cortex
Long-Term Depression in the Cerebellar Cortex
140. Synaptic Plasticity in the Cerebellar Cortex
(Cont’d)
Mechanisms of cerebellar LTD
▪ Learning
▪ Rise in [Ca2+]i and [Na+]i and the activation of protein
kinase C
▪ Memory
▪ Internalized AMPA channels and depressed excitatory
postsynaptic currents
143. Synaptic Plasticity in the Hippocampus
LTP and LTD
▪ Key to forming declarative memories in the brain
Bliss and Lomo
▪ High frequency electrical stimulation of excitatory pathway
Anatomy of Hippocampus
▪ Brain slice preparation: Study of LTD and LTP
148. Synaptic Plasticity in the Hippocampus
(Cont’d)
BCM theory
▪ When the postsynaptic cell is
weakly depolarized by other inputs:
Active synapses undergo LTD
instead of LTP
▪ Accounts for bidirectional synaptic
changes (up or down)
149. Synaptic Plasticity in the Hippocampus
(Cont’d)
LTP, LTD, and Glutamate Receptor Trafficking
▪ Stable synaptic transmission: AMPA receptors are
replaced maintaining the same number
▪ LTD and LTP disrupt equilibrium
▪ Bidirectional regulation of phosphorylation
150. LTP, LTD, and Glutamate Receptor
Trafficking (Cont’d)
151. LTP, LTD, and Glutamate Receptor Trafficking (Cont’d)
152. Synaptic Plasticity in the Hippocampus (Cont’d)
LTP, LTD, and Memory
▪ Tonegawa, Silva, and colleagues
▪ Genetic “knockout” mice
▪ Consequences of genetic deletions (e.g., CaMK11 subunit)
▪ Advances (temporal and spatial control)
▪ Limitations of using genetic mutants to study LTP/learning:
secondary consequences
153. Phosphorylation as a long term
mechanism:Persistently Active
Protein Kinases
Phosphorylation maintained:
Kinases stay “on”
▪ CaMKII and LTP
▪ Molecular switch hypothesis
154. Protein Synthesis
Protein synthesis required for formation of long-
term memory
▪ Protein synthesis inhibitors
▪ Deficits in learning and memory
CREB and Memory
▪ CREB: Cyclic AMP response element binding protein
155.
156. Protein Synthesis (Cont’d)
Structural Plasticity and Memory
▪ Long-term memory associated with transcription
and formation of new synapses
▪ Rat in complex environment: Shows increase in
number of neuron synapses by about 25%
157. Learning and memory
Occur at synapses
Unique features of Ca2+
Critical for neurotransmitter secretion and
muscle contraction, every form of synaptic
plasticity
Charge-carrying ion plus a potent second
messenger
▪ Can couple electrical activity with long-term changes
in brain
159. The molecular basis for classical conditioning in Aplysia
Pairing CS and US causes greater activation of adenylyl
cyclase because CS admits Ca2+ into the presynaptic terminal
160. Associative Learning in Aplysia
Classical conditioning: CS initially produces no response but after
pairing with US, causes withdrawal
162. LECTURE 20-21: CELLULAR BASIS OF LEARNING & MEMORY
REQUIRED READING: Kandel text, Chapter 63, and Assigned Review Articles
Research on cellular basis of learning & memory mainly performed in three animal systems
Aplysia Drosophila Mouse
All neurons and synapses
in behavioral circuits are
identified and can be recorded
easily
Ideal for detailing mechanisms
underlying implicit learned motor
responses
Capable of
learned behaviors
Amenable to random
mutagenesis and
selection of mutants
with defective
behaviors
Similar anatomy to human
Amenable to study of
explicit memory
Hippocampus amenable
to electrophysiology
Behavior modification of
genetically modified mice
163. APLYSIA SHORT-TERM LEARNED RESPONSES AFFECTING GILL WITHDRAWL REFLEX
HABITUATION SENSITIZATION CLASSICAL
CONDITIONING
Repeated tactile stimulation of
siphon
depresses
gill withdrawl response
Harmful stimulus
sensitizes
gill withdrawl response
to subsequent
harmful OR harmless
stimuli given to
same OR different
body regions
Pairing harmful stimulus
with preceding harmless
conditioning stimulus sensitizes
gill withdrawl response
to subsequent
conditioning stimulus
but not to tactile stimuli
given to other body areas
164. HABITUATION IS DUE TO DEPRESSED NEUROTRANSMITTER RELEASE AT SEVERAL SITES
Rapidly repeated tactile stimulation of siphon
attenuates gill withdrawl both during the
training and for a short period afterwards.
Habituation is due to reduced
neurotransmitter release by the
sensory neuron and by relevant interneurons
in response to the tactile stimulus.
I.e., the memory of habituation
is distributed at various synapses
in the circuit
Whereas a rapid series of stimuli induces
short-term habituation,
several sets of tactile stimuli distributed
over several hours induces
long-term habituation that lasts for weeks.
165. SHORT-TERM SENSITIZATION IS MEDIATED THROUGH AXO-AXONIC
SEROTONERGIC SYNAPSES OF FACILITATING INTERNEURONS
Serotonergic facilitating interneurons
send axo-axonic connections to
broadly distributed sensory neurons
Unconditioned stimulus causes
interneurons to release serotonin,
which acts through metabotropic
HT receptors to increase the
likelihood of neurotransmitter release
following sensory neuron firing
Sensitization can be mimicked without
sensitizing stimulus by local
experimental application of serotonin
Sensitization is mediated by
presynaptic elevation of
cAMP & PKA activity,
which has three effects:
1) Greater proportion of vesicles
166. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING EMPLOYS SEQUENCE-REINFORCED PRODUCTION OF cAMP
Conditioning is only effective when CS precedes US by a short interval (~ 0.5 se
CS elevates calcium in presynaptic terminal at moment of US.
Calcium/CAM enhances the enzymatic activity of adenylate cyclase triggered by
Adenylate cyclase is a biochemical “coincidence detector”
167. TEMPORALLY SPACED SENSITIZATION OR CONDITIONING TRAININGS
INDUCE LONG-TERM IMPLICIT MEMORY
Long-term sensitization
and conditioning are
also mediated through
presynaptic cAMP
production
and PKA activity
PKA induces specific
CREB-dependent
gene transcription and
protein synthesis:
Newly synthesized
ubiquitin
hydrolase degrades
PKA regulatory subunits,
making the enzyme
constitutively active
Other newly synthesized
168. GENETIC SCREENS FOR GENES AFFECTING CONDITIONING IMPLICIT MEMORY
ALL AFFECT THE cAMP-PKA-CREB PATHWAY
FLY MUTANTS SELECTED FOR DEFECTS IN IMPLICIT MEMORY
DUNCE encodes cAMP phosphodiesterase
RUTABAGA mutant defective for Ca+2/CAM enhancement of cyclase
AMNESIAC encodes a peptide neurotransmitter acting on GS-coupled rec
PKA-R1 encodes PKA
169. HIPPOCAMPAL NEURONS IN DIFFERENT RELAYS ARE ALL
CAPABLE OF UNDERGOING SYNAPTIC LONG-TERM POTENTIATION
AXON STIMULATION PROTOCOL AMPLITUDE OF EPSCS
20 min1 m 60 min
EPSPSlope(%original)
300
100
200
TIME (min)
6020 40 80“THETA” BURST
One Theta burst gives what is sometimes c
Early LTP,
which is less than doubling
of EPSC which lasts for hours
Four Theta bursts spaced minutes apart ge
Late LTP,
with up to 4-fold EPSC stimulation
that lasts for days
170. INDUCTION AND EXPRESSION OF SYNAPTIC PLASTICITY
Prior synaptic activity can INDUCE long-term plasticity. Such plasticity can be IND
molecular events occuring either presynaptically or postsynaptically.
The changes in transmission following synaptic plasticity can be EXPRESSED eith
presynaptically and/or postsynaptically, and need not correspond to the site of IN
E.g., at a certain synapse, postsynaptic calcium influx can INDUCE plasticity which
EXPRESSED as changes in presynaptic neurotransmitter release probability.
171. LTP AT MOSSY FIBER--CA3 SYNAPSES IS DUE TO PRESYNAPTIC CALCIUM INFLUX
AND cAMP/PKA PATHWAY
172. LTP AT SCHAFFER COLLATERAL--CA1 SYNAPSES IS DUE TO
POSTSYNAPTIC CALCIUM INFLUX AND CAM KINASE ACTIVITY
LTP at CA3-CA1 synapse is blocked by
NMDAR antagonist APV and by inhibitors
of CAM kinase
173. PRESYNAPTIC COMPONENT OF EARLY AND LATE LTP AT
CA3--CA1 SYNAPSES RESEMBLES SHORT- AND LONG-TERM SENSITIZATION
Late LTP
absolutely requires
new protein synthesis
174. PRESYNAPTIC COMPONENT OF EARLY AND LATE LTP REQUIRES
POSTSYNAPTIC CAMK ACTIVITY AND RETROGRADE SIGNALS
175. OTHER MECHANISMS OF PLASTICITY ENHANCING EPSPS
LTP can be expressed postsynaptically as a reduction of leak conductance in dend
This enables the EPSC to generate EPSP with greater length and time constants
Excitatory transmission can be enhanced by HETEROSYNAPTIC INHIBITION OF
TRANSMISSION. This is mediated by endogenous cannabinoids acting on pre
terminals of nearby GABAergic synapses.
176. IS LTP REQUIRED FOR HIPPOCAMPAL CONSOLIDATION OF EXPLICIT MEMORY?
CAMK AND NMDAR1 NEEDED FOR LONG-TERM SPATIAL REPRESENTATION IN HIPPOCAMPU
Single pyramidal neuron
in hippocampus
fires when mouse is in
certain location
(independent of
animal’s orientation)
Normal mouse remembers
where it has been.
spatial map in HC
does not change in
subsequent chamber trials
177. IS LTP REQUIRED FOR HIPPOCAMPAL CONSOLIDATION OF EXPLICIT MEMORY?
HIPPOCAMPAL CAMK AND NMDAR1 NEEDED FOR BOTH LTP AND SPATIAL MEMORY
178. SYNAPSES SENSITIVE TO NMDAR-MEDIATED LTP ARE ALSO SENSITIVE
TO NMDAR-MEDIATED LONG-TERM DEPRESSION (LTD)
AXON STIMULATION PROTOCOL AMPLITUDE OF EPSCS
20 min1 m 60 min
EPSPSlope(%original)
300
100
200
TIME (min)
6020 40 80
LTP
20 min5 m 60 min
EPSPSlope(%original) 300
100
200
TIME (min)
6020 40 80
LTD
179. LTD HAS A LOWER CALCIUM CONCENTRATION THRESHOLD THAN LTP,
BUT LTP IS DOMINANT
LOW-FREQUENCY STIMULUS TRAIN
LOW-LEVEL CALCIUM ENTRY
ACTIVATION OF CALCINEURIN
AMPA RECEPTOR INTERNALIZATION
THETA- OR HIGH-FREQUENCY STIMULU
GREATER CALCIUM ENTRY
ACTIVATION OF CALCINEURIN AND CAM
AMPA RECEPTOR INSERTION AND PHO
180. STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL FEATURES OF AMPA-TYPE GLUTAMATE RECEPTORS
AMPA receptors are homo- or hetero-tetramers
Restriction of calcium entry mediated by GluR2; tetramers containing >1 GluR2 subunit co
AMPA receptors encoded by different genes or by alternative splicing have different C-term
Receptor tails contain phosphorylation sites for different protein kinases and binding sites
for PDZ-domain-containing proteins
Receptors containing only GluR2(short) and/or GluR3 subunits are delivered constitutively
vesicles to synapse
Retention at synapse mediated by complex with Glutamate Receptor Interacting Protein (G
181. NMDAR-INDUCED CAMK ACTIVITY ACTS ON AMPA RECEPTORS IN TWO WAYS
TO PROMOTE LTP
CAMK
PDZ-protein
STG
GRIP
PSD-95
GRIP
PSD-95
Calcineurin
CAMK phosphorylates an unknown
protein, enabling a PDZ-protein
that interacts with long tail
on GluR1 to deliver receptor
TO EXTRASYNAPTIC SITE
Delivered receptors migrate (randomly?)
into post-synaptic density,
where interactions of receptor-
associated GRIP and STG and the
major postsynaptic matrix protein
PSD-95 anchor receptor to synapse
Newly delivered GluR1-containing
AMPA receptors can be phosphorylated
directly by CAMK, which
increases unitary conductance
Calcineurin activation promotes internalization
of AMPA receptors containing only
short-tail subunits, thereby promoting LTD
WHEN HIGH CALCIUM ENTRY ACTIVATES BOTH CALCINEURIN AND CAMK
CAMK-MEDIATED GluR1-CONTAINING AMPAR EXOCYTOSIS EXCEEDS CAL
SHORT TAIL-ONLY AMPAR ENDOCYTOSIS
182. HIGH CAMK ACTIVITY INDUCED DURING LATE LTP IS ALSO MEDIATED BY
NEW CAM KINASE PROTEIN SYNTHESIS NEAR THE SYNAPSE
Most mRNAs have 3’ polyA tail, which is necessary for initiation of the mRNA’s translatio
Neurons contain some mRNAs that are not polyadenylated, are not translated,
and are transported along dendrites to areas near dendritic spines
NMDA receptor activation and calcium entry activates a protein kinase
called AURORA
Aurora kinase activates translation of nearby dormant mRNAs
ONE OF THESE DORMANT RNAs ENCODES CAM KINASE
Because of its dendritic localizaation, new CAMK synthesis is restricted to the synapse u
The dendritic localization of dormant CAMK RNA and its activation during LTP are media
Cytoplasmic Polyadenylation Element Binding (CPEB) protein
183. HOW DOES CPEB PROTEIN CONTROL RNA DORMANCY AND ACTIVATION IN NEURONS?
PolyA is needed for assembly of 5’
translation initiation complex
CPEB protein binding to 3’ CPE
helps mask RNA 5’ end
CPEB phosphorylation by Aurora allows for recruitment of polyA polye
Polyadenylation of dormant RNA allows assembly of 5’ translation initia
185. The strange case of
Charles D’Sousa
Or is it Philip Cutajar?
Rare type of disorder
Some stuff clearly
spared
QuickTime™ and a
TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor
are needed to see this picture.
186. Results with amnesiacs has lead to many
discoveries about memory
Episodic vs. semantic memory
Procedural vs. declarative memory
Implicit vs. explicit memory
Phonological loop vs. visuo spatial sketchpad
187. Taxonomy
Individual differences
Interpretation
Application
Mostly comes down to a lack of control,
which of course is inevitable
188. We pretty much have to rely on these
They are, thankfully, rare
Usually some sort of accident or a stroke
189. Stroke patient
Both Medial temporal lobes, left Hp and
lots of surrounding area, but not the
amygdala
Had trouble naming objects
Anterograde and retrograde amnesia
Similar to KC
190. Case of encephalitis
Pervasive amnesia
Both semantic and
episodic impairment
Temporal lobe dilation
Hp destroyed
QuickTime™ and a
TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor
are needed to see this picture.
191. Retrograde amnesia
Losing past memories
Anterograde amnesia
No new memories
Spared function
Often implicit tasks, such as priming or ability
to learn a new skill
192. Working Memory
Semantic memory
Even KC could learn new stuff
Declarative information using Tulving’s
method
Restrict errors
193. Difficulties in interference, retrieval and
encoding
Consolidation
Tends to come down to something to do with
HP
Context or sending item off for processing or
some such thing
194. What is a cat?
Temporal lobe problems
Oddly enough, episodic memory often
intact in these rare cases
195. There are cases of people with intact
phonological loops and visuo spatial
sketchpads that are pretty much toast
And vice versa
196. More than half of all
dementia is from AD
2 times more
women than men
Could be because
women live longer
though
dementia and brain
stuff
Neurofibrillary
tangles and neuritic
plaques
197. MASSIVE cell death
In essence, you get like lesions
everywhere
‘cortical’ dementia, but you get these
lesions, holes really, everywhere
198. ACh is important in memory, especially in
HP
The ACh system is severely damaged in
AD
Indeed it is almost targeted
Other systems too though
199. Episodic effects
Eventually semantic effects
Retrieval cues don’t help
Information was not even encoded
Nondeclarative stuff, skills etc, are the last
to go
200. Most drugs target the cholinergic system
This disease not only affects the victim,
but also his/her family
NGF is promising
Treatments will come, but, reversal, I
dunno
Respite care is key for the family
201. Frankly there is not a great deal of hope
for most amnesiacs
That said, neuroscience is moving pretty
fast
Has helped us understand normal function
206. The limits of short-term and
working memory
Source: (a) Adapted from Peterson, L.M. and Peterson, J.M., Short-term retention of individual verbal items. Journal of
Experimental Psychology, 1959, 58, 193–198., (b) Adapted from Waugh, N.C. and Norman, D.A., Primary memory.
Psychological Review, 1965, 72, 89–104.
207. Shallow versus deep
processing
Source: Based on Craik, F.I.M. and Lockhart, R.S., Levels of processing: A framework for memory research. Journal of
Verbal Behavior, 1972, 11, 671–684.
208. Explicit versus implicit
memory
Source: Based on data from Graf, P. and Mandler, G., Activation makes words more accessible, but not necessarily more
retrievable. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 1984, 23, 553–568.
210. Ebbinghaus’s forgetting curve
Source: Adapted from Ebbinghaus, H., Memory: A contribution to experimental psychology (H.A. Ruger and C.E. Bussenius,
trans.), 1885/1913. Teacher’s College Press, Columbia University, New York.
211. Eyewitness testimony
Source: Based on data from Loftus, E.F. and Palmer, J.C., Reconstruction of automobile destruction: An example of the
interaction between language and memory. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 1974, 13, 585–589.
213. Explicit and implicit memory of amnesic
and non-amnesic individuals
Source: Adapted from Graf, P., Squire, L.R. and Mandler, G., The information that amnesic patients do not forget. Journal of
Experimental Psychology: Learning, memory and cognition, 1984, 10, 164–178.
217. Encode information into memory traces (stored
bits of memory)
Process information and put into memory
storage
Use retrieval to recall and output information
when needed
218. • Information-processing approach: mind
functions like a sophisticated computer
• Unlike computers, human minds have the
capacity for consciousness
▪ Awareness of one’s own thoughts and the
external world
▪ Focusing attention brings stimulus into
consciousness
219. Explicit memory
Conscious use of memory
Searching memory for stored information
Implicit memory
Access and retrieve memories without
conscious effort
220. Sensory memory
Information comes into sensory organs, stored
briefly in sensory form
Short-term memory
Temporary holding tank for limited amounts of
information
Long-term memory
Permanent storage of memories
221.
222. Information received from sense organs lasts for
short period of time
Acquire information primarily from sight (iconic
memory) and hearing (echoic memory), but also
through other senses (haptic memory)
Transfer occurs when we pay attention to
sensory input to move it from iconic memory to
short-term memory
223. Temporary holding tank
Utilizes dual-coding system
Memories stored visually or acoustically
Limited capacity and duration
224. George Miller
Average person holds about 7 + 2 items in STM
Phone numbers, social security numbers, etc.
Chunking can help increase capacity
Grouping information into meaningful units
Number of chunks that can be held decreases
as chunks get larger
225. Once passed into STM, information can only be
kept for 30 seconds without some type of
processing
Maintenance rehearsal
Repetition of material in short-term memory
226. Maintenance rehearsal produces a weak transfer
into LTM
Elaborative rehearsal
Forming associations, or mental connections,
between information in STM to information
already stored in LTM
227. Fergus Craik and Robert Lockhart
The more thoroughly or deeply you process
information, the stronger the transfer to LTM
Both maintenance and elaborative rehearsal
allow for transfer to LTM, but elaborative
rehearsal involves a deep level of processing
Difference between simply repeating material
and thinking about material
Pays off in terms of storage and retrieval of
information
228. LTM is where information is stored for long
periods of time
Limitless capacity
Capacity problems are likely related to lack of
focus or lack of space in STM or working
memory
229. Encoding—how we break down the
information coming into our senses
Storage—keeping memories in our long
term memory
Retrieval—process in which information in
your memory can be recalled
230. Encoding occurs in several forms
Acoustic (sound), visual, semantic
Semantic encoding is most common
Stores general meaning, rather than all
sensory details
Encode and connect new information with
already stored information in LTM
231. Schemata – generalized knowledge structures
Filing systems for knowledge about particular
concepts
Default values for missing information
Various types of schemata
Object, abstract concept, person
Stereotypes
Scripts
232. Declarative memory – explicit memory for
knowledge easily verbalized (e.g. names, dates)
Two parts of declarative memory
Semantic memory – concepts
Episodic memory – memory for events
▪ Also called autobiographical memory
▪ Memories have personal awareness
233. Females betters able to recall emotional
childhood memories
Females tend to organize autobiographical
memories in more diverse categories (i.e. more
elaborative processing)
234. Memory that is not readily put into words -
procedures for skills such as riding a bike, tying
shoe, etc.
Often is implicit memory (unconscious)
Tends to last longer than declarative memory
Studies from people with amnesia suggest that
procedural memory is a separate memory
system
235. Retrieval – act of moving information from LTM
back to working memory or consciousness
Probe or cue sent in search of stored memory
traces
Recall task – probe relatively weak and does not
contain much cue information (e.g. essay
question)
Recognition task – probe stronger, contains
more cue information (e.g. multiple choice
question)
Memory must be available and accessible
236. Pay attention, minimizing distractions
Do not cram for exams
Distributed is better than massed practice
Use elaborative rehearsal
Use overlearning
Use mnemonic devices
Acronyms (APA), acrostics(rhyme or saying)
▪ Remember the major functions of memory: Ellen
stopped remembering (encoding, storage, retrieval)
237. Flashbulb memories – detailed memories of
emotionally charged events
These memories are not always accurate
Store gist of information in LTM, not exact
details
Examples of flashbulb memories:
▪ Attacks on 9/11
▪ Assassination of JFK
▪ Birth of child
▪ Wedding
238. Elizabeth Loftus
Eyewitness memory can be manipulated by
expectations
Memories can be permanently altered by things
that happen after we encode memories (false
memories)
False memories become part of memory of
original event
240. Memory
persistence of learning over time
via the storage and retrieval of
information
Flashbulb Memory
a clear memory of an
emotionally significant moment
or event
241. Memory as Information Processing
similar to a computer
write to file
save to disk
read from disk
Encoding
the processing of information into the
memory system
i.e., extracting meaning
242. Storage
the retention of encoded information
over time
Retrieval
process of getting information out of
memory
243. Sensory Memory
the immediate, initial recording of
sensory information in the memory
system
Working Memory
focuses more on the processing of
briefly stored information
244. Short-Term Memory
activated memory that holds a few
items briefly
look up a phone number, then quickly
dial before the information is forgotten
Long-Term Memory
the relatively permanent and limitless
storehouse of the memory system
247. Automatic Processing
unconscious encoding of incidental
information
space
time
frequency
well-learned information
word meanings
we can learn automatic processing
reading backwards
248. Effortful Processing
requires attention and conscious
effort
Rehearsal
conscious repetition of information
to maintain it in consciousness
to encode it for storage
249. Ebbinghaus used nonsense
syllables
TUV ZOF GEK WAV
the more times practiced on Day 1,
the fewer repetitions to relearn on
Day 2
Spacing Effect
distributed practice yields better long-
term retention than massed practice
250. 20
15
10
5
0
8 16 24 32 42 53 64
Time in
minutes
taken to
relearn
list on
day 2
Number of repetitions of list on day 1
252. Semantic Encoding
encoding of meaning
including meaning of words
Acoustic Encoding
encoding of sound
especially sound of words
Visual Encoding
encoding of picture images
253.
254. Imagery
mental pictures
a powerful aid to effortful processing,
especially when combined with semantic
encoding
Mnemonics
memory aids
especially those techniques that use vivid
imagery and organizational devices
255. Chunking
organizing items into familiar, manageable
units
like horizontal organization--1776149218121941
often occurs automatically
use of acronyms
HOMES--Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior
ARITHMETIC--A Rat In Tom’s House Might Eat
Tom’s Ice Cream
257. Hierarchies
complex information broken down into broad concepts and
further subdivided into categories and subcategories
Encoding
(automatic
or effortful)
Imagery
(visual
Encoding)
Meaning
(semantic
Encoding)
Organization
Chunks Hierarchies
258. Iconic Memory
a momentary sensory memory of visual
stimuli
a photographic or picture image memory
lasting no more that a few tenths of a
second
Echoic Memory
momentary sensory memory of auditory
stimuli
259. Short-Term
Memory
limited in
duration and
capacity
“magical”
number 7+/-2
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
3 6 9 12 15 18
Time in seconds between presentation
of contestants and recall request
(no rehearsal allowed)
Percentage
who recalled
consonants
260. How does storage work?
Karl Lashley (1950)
rats learn maze
lesion cortex
test memory
Synaptic changes
Long-term Potentiation
increase in synapse’s firing potential after brief, rapid
stimulation
Strong emotions make for stronger memories
some stress hormones boost learning and retention
261. Amnesia--the loss of memory
Explicit Memory
memory of facts and experiences that one can
consciously know and declare
also called declarative memory
hippocampus--neural center in limbic system that
helps process explicit memories for storage
Implicit Memory
retention independent of conscious recollection
also called procedural memory
263. MRI scan of hippocampus (in red)
Hippocampus
264. Recall
measure of memory in which the
person must retrieve information
learned earlier
as on a fill-in-the blank test
Recognition
Measure of memory in which the
person has only to identify items
previously learned
as on a multiple-choice test
265. Relearning
memory measure that assesses
the amount of time saved when
learning material a second time
Priming
activation, often unconsciously,
of particular associations in
memory
267. Deja Vu (French)--already seen
cues from the current situation may subconsciously
trigger retrieval of an earlier similar experience
"I've experienced this before."
Mood-congruent Memory
tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with
one’s current mood
memory, emotions, or moods serve as retrieval cues
State-dependent Memory
what is learned in one state (while one is high, drunk, or
depressed) can more easily be remembered when in same
state
268. After learning to move
a mobile by kicking,
infants had their
learning reactivated
most strongly when
retested in the same
rather than a different
context (Butler &
Rovee-Collier, 1989).
269. Forgetting as encoding failure
Information never enters the long-term
memory
External
events
Sensory
memory
Short-
term
memory
Long-
term
memory
Attention
Encoding
Encoding
Encoding
failure leads
to forgetting
271. Ebbinghaus
forgetting
curve over
30 days--
initially
rapid, then
levels off
with time
12345 10 15 20 25 30
10
20
30
40
50
60
0
Time in days since learning list
Percentage of
list retained
when
relearning
272. The forgetting curve for Spanish learned in school
Retention
drops,
then levels off
1 3 5 9½ 14½ 25 35½ 49½
Time in years after completion of Spanish course
100%
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Percentage of
original
vocabulary
retained
273. Forgetting can result from failure to
retrieve information from long-term
memory
External
events
Attention
Encoding
Encoding
Retrieval failure
leads to forgetting
Retrieval
Sensory
memory
Short-term
memory
Long-term
memory
274. Learning some items may disrupt
retrieval of other information
Proactive (forward acting) Interference
disruptive effect of prior learning on recall of
new information
Retroactive (backwards acting)
Interference
disruptive effect of new learning on recall of
old information
275.
276. Retroactive Interference
Without interfering
events, recall is
better
After sleep
After remaining awake
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Hours elapsed after learning syllables
90%
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Percentage
of syllables
recalled
277. Forgetting can
occur at any
memory stage
As we process
information,
we filter, alter,
or lose much
of it
278. Motivated Forgetting
people unknowingly revise memories
Repression
defense mechanism that banishes from
consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts,
feelings, and memories
279. We filter information and fill in
missing pieces
Misinformation Effect
incorporating misleading information into
one's memory of an event
Source Amnesia
attributing to the wrong source an event
that we experienced, heard about, read
about, or imagined (misattribution)
281. Memories of Abuse
Repressed or Constructed?
Child sexual abuse does occur
Some adults do actually forget such episodes
False Memory Syndrome
condition in which a person’s identity and
relationships center around a false but strongly
believed memory of traumatic experience
sometimes induced by well-meaning therapists
282. Most people can agree on the following:
Injustice happens
Incest happens
Forgetting happens
Recovered memories are commonplace
Memories recovered under hypnosis or drugs
are especially unreliable
Memories of things happening before age 3
are unreliable
Memories, whether false or real, are upsetting
283. Study repeatedly to boost recall
Spend more time rehearsing or
actively thinking about the material
Make material personally
meaningful
Use mnemonic devices
associate with peg words--something
already stored
make up story
chunk--acronyms
284. Activate retrieval cues--mentally
recreate situation and mood
Recall events while they are fresh--
before you encounter misinformation
Minimize interference
Test your own knowledge
rehearse
determine what you do not yet
know
289. EVOLUTION: CHANGE (in behavior)THROUGH TIME.
DESCENT WITH MODIFICATION: THE MODE OF EVOLUTION BY
BRANCHING COMMON DESCENT.
GRADUALISM: CHANGE (in behavior) IS SLOW, STEADY, STATELY.
NATURA NON FACIT SALTUS. GIVEN ENOUGH TIME EVOLUTION CAN
ACCOUNT FOR THE ORIGIN OF NEW SPECIES.
MULTIPLICATION OF SPECIATION: EVOLUTION PRODUCES NOT JUST
NEW SPECIES (behavior), BUT AN INCREASING NUMBER OF NEW SPECIES
(behaviors).
NATURAL SELECTION: THE MECHANISM OF EVOLUTIONARY CHANGE
CAN BE SUBDIVIDED INTO FIVE STEPS: (SEE NEXT SLIDE).
290. 1. POPULATIONS [behaviors] TEND TO INCREASE INDEFINITELY IN A
GEOMETRIC RATIO. [FROM OBSERVATION]
2. IN A NATURAL ENVIRONMENT, HOWEVER, POPULATION [behavior]
NUMBERS STABILIZE AT A CERTAIN LEVEL. [FROM OBSERVATION]
THERE MUST BE A “STRUGGLE FOR EXISTENCE” SINCE NOT ALL
ORGANISMS [behaviors] PRODUCED CAN SURVIVE. [FROM INFERENCE]
THERE IS VARIATION IN EVERY SPECIES [behaviors]. [FROM
OBSERVATION]
IN THE STRUGGLE FOR EXISTENCE, THOSE VARIATIONS THAT ARE
BETTER ADAPTED TO THE ENVIRONMENT LEAVE BEHIND MORE
OFFSPRING THAN THE LESS WELL ADAPTED INDIVIDUALS, ALSO KNOWN
AS DIFFERENTIAL REPRODUCTIVE SUCCESS. [FROM INFERENCE]
291. PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING SHOULD APPLY EQUALLY TO DIFFERENT
BEHAVIORS AND TO DIFFERENT SPECIES OF ANIMALS
LEARNING PROCESSES CAN BE STUDIED MOST OBJECTIVELY WHEN
THE FOCUS OF STUDY IS ON STIMULI AND RESPONSES.
INTERNAL PROCESSES ARE LARGELY EXCLUDED FROM SCIENTIFIC
STUDY
LEARNING INVOLVES A BEHAVIOR CHANGE
ORGANISMS ARE BORN AS BLANK SLATES (tabula rasa).
LEARNING IS LARGELY THE RESULT OF ENVIRONMENTAL EVENTS.
THE MOST USEFUL THEORIES TEND TO BE PARSIMONIOUS ONES.
297. Observational learning
What is observational learning?
The classic Bobo doll study
Bandura’s contemporary model of
observational learning
▪ Attention
▪ Retention
▪ Motor reproduction
▪ Reinforcement of incentive conditions
299. Self-regulatory learning
▪ A model of self-regulatory learning
Self-Evaluation
and Monitoring
Putting a Plan into
Action and Monitoring It
Goal Setting and
Strategic Planning
Monitoring Outcomes
and Refining Strategies
301. Some Learning Processes may be unique to human beings.
Cognitive processes are the focus of study.
Objective, systematic observations of people’s behavior should
be the focus of scientific inquiry; however, inferences about
unobservable mental processes can often be drawn from
behavior.
Individuals are actively involved in the learning process.
Learning involves the formation of mental representations or
associations that are not necessarily reflected in overt behavior
changes.
302. Cognitive processes influence learning.
As children grow, they become capable of
increasingly more sophisticated thought.
People organize the things they learn.
New information is most easily acquired when
people can associate it with things they have
already learned.
People control their own learning.
303. Jean Piaget (French)
Lev Vygotsky (RUSSIAN)
Edward Tolman (American)
Jerome Bruner (American)
Kurt Lewin (German)