Definitions of science 2

1. UNIVERSITY OF PORT HARCOURT
FACULTY OF EDUCATION
DEPARTMENT OF CURRICULUM STUDIES AND
EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY
ASSIGNMENT
ON
TEN DEFINITIONS OF SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY
INCLUDING AUTHORS AND YEAR
PRESENTED
BY
ODEYEMI AUGUSTINE SUNKANMI
G2014/MED/CSET/FT/1142
AREA OF SPECIFICATION: SCIENCE EDUCATION
COURSE TITLE: SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY
COURSE CODE: EDC 841.1
COURSE LECTURER: REV. (DR) O.F. NDIOHO
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2. TEN DEFINITIONS OF SCIENCE INCLUDING AUTHORS AND YEAR
1. The systematic observation of natural events and conditions in order to
discover facts about them and to formulate laws and principles based on
these facts. 2. The organized body of knowledge that is derived from such
observations and that can be verified or tested by further investigation. 3.
any specific branch of this general body of knowledge, such as biology,
physics, geology, or astronomy. Academic Press Dictionary of Science &
Technology.1992.
2. The Science manpower project in the U.S.A. has defined science as 'a
cumulative and endless series of Empirical observation which result in the
formulation of concept and theories, with both concepts and theories being
subject to modification in the light of further empirical observation'. 14 Jun
2013
3. Science is an intellectual activity carried on by humans that is designed to
discover information about the natural world in which humans live and to
discover the ways in which this information can be organized into
meaningful patterns. A primary aim of science is to collect facts (data). An
ultimate purpose of science is to discern the order that exists between and
amongst the various facts. Dr. Sheldon Gottlieb in a lecture series at the
University of South Alabama.8 April 1997
4. Science consists simply of the formulation and testing of hypotheses based
on observational evidence; experiments are important where applicable, but
their function is merely to simplify observation by imposing controlled
conditions. Robert H. Dott, Jr., and Henry L. Batten, Evolution of the Earth
(2nd edition).21, Sept 2011.
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3. 5. According to Paul Dettart Hund (1971:16), science is a human enterprise
involving a complex intellectual activity that is governed by human purpose.
The processes of science thus involve observation, formulating hypothesis,
and experimentation, collection of data, analysis and evaluation of result.
The process of science as delineated above speaks of a method by which
facts, theories are discovered.
6. John Dewey (1975), the most eminent exponent of progressive. He viewed
science as significant instrument to be used in solving man's practical
problems.
7. Squire (1976), Science is made up of our knowledge to the physical world
and the ways of exploring the boundaries between our knowledge and the
unknown.
*J.B Conant (1951), science is an inter connected series of concept and
conceptual scheme that are developed as a result of experimental observation
and are still reliable to further experimentation and observation.
8. Oguniyi (1986), science is an attempt human being use to organise their
experience about nature into meaningful system of explanation.
9. Hundred (1971 process. 18). Science is seen not just as 'abstraction from
empirical data's but as 'an intellectual creation often suggested by data'. 'The
discovery of order among data makes the Science. A process which requires
'a constructive imagination, intuition, and an intellectual command of
relevant concepts’.
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4. TEN DEFINITIONS OF TECHNOLOGY AUTHORS AND DATE
VARIOUS DEFINITIONS AND VIEWS OF TECHNOLOGY
1. Andrew Feenberg, Critical Theory of Technology (1991, p. 14)
"Technology is not a thing in the ordinary sense of the term, but an
"ambivalent" process of development suspended between different
possibilities. This "ambivalence" of technology is distinguished from
neutrality by the role it attributes to social values in the design, and not
merely the use, of technical systems. On this view, technology is not a
destiny but a scene of struggle. It is a social battlefield, or perhaps a better
metaphor would be a parliament of things on which civilization alternatives
are debated and decided."
2. Technology can be viewed as an activity that forms or changes
culture. Additionally, technology is the application of math, science, and the
arts for the benefit of life as it is known. A modern example is the rise
of communication technology, which has lessened barriers to human
interaction and, as a result, has helped spawn new subcultures; the rise
of cyber culture has, at its basis, the development of the Internet and
the computer. Not all technology enhances culture in a creative way;
technology can also help facilitate political oppression and war via tools
such as guns. As a cultural activity, technology predates
both science and engineering, each of which formalizes some aspects of
technological endeavor. Ferraro, Gary P. (2006). Cultural Anthropology:
An Applied Perspective. The Thomson Corporation. ISBN 0-495-03039-
2. Retrieved 2008-05-17.
3. For ex., George Crabb , Universal Technological Dictionary, or Familiar
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5. Explanation of the Terms Used in All Arts and Sciences, Containing
Definitions Drawn From the Original Writers , (London: Baldwin, Cradock
and Joy, 1823), s.v. "technology."The word "technology" can also be used to
refer to a collection of techniques. In this context, it is the current state of
humanity's knowledge of how to combine resources to produce desired
products, to solve problems, fulfill needs, or satisfy wants; it includes
technical methods, skills, processes, techniques, tools and raw materials.
When combined with another term, such as "medical technology" or "space
technology", it refers to the state of the respective field's knowledge and
tools. "State-of-the-art technology" refers to the high technology available to
humanity in any field.
4. Technology can be most broadly defined as the entities, both material and
immaterial, created by the application of mental and physical effort in order
to achieve some value. In this usage, technology refers to tools and machines
that may be used to solve real-world problems. It is a far-reaching term that
may include simple tools, such as a crowbar or wooden spoon, or more
complex machines, such as a space station or particle accelerator. Tools and
machines need not be material; virtual technology, such as computer
software and business methods, falls under this definition of technology.
Oakley, K. P. (1976). Man the Tool-Maker. University of Chicago
Press. ISBN 978-0-226-61270-6.
5. The Merriam-Webster Dictionary offers a definition of the term: "the
practical application of knowledge especially in a particular area" and "a
capability given by the practical application of knowledge" Merriam-
Webster. Retrieved 2007-02-16.
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6. 6. In 1937, the American sociologist Read Bain wrote that "technology
includes all tools, machines, utensils, weapons, instruments, housing,
clothing, communicating and transporting devices and the skills by which
we produce and use them. Bain's definition remains common among
scholars today, especially social scientists. But equally prominent is the
definition of technology as applied science, especially among scientists and
engineers, although most social scientists who study technology reject this
definition. More recently, scholars have borrowed from European
philosophers of "technique" to extend the meaning of technology to various
forms of instrumental reason, as in Foucault's work on technologies of the
self. Read Bain, "Technology and State Government," American
Sociological Review 2 (December 1937): 860.
7. Technology is the collection of techniques, methods or processes used in the
production of goods or services or in the accomplishment of objectives, such
as scientific investigation. Technology can be the knowledge of techniques,
processes, etc. or it can be embedded in machines, computers, devices and
factories, which can be operated by individuals without detailed knowledge
of the workings of such things.
8. © 1981-2015 The Computer Language Company Inc. Defined technology as
applying a systematic technique, method or approach to solve a problem.
Much of today's technology implies the use of computers.
9. Random House College Dictionary (1979)
(a)The branch of knowledge that deals with the creation and use of technical
means and their interrelation with life, society, and the environment, drawin
gupon such subjects as industrial arts, engineering, applied science, and pure
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7. science.
(b) the application of this knowledge for practical ends.
(c) the terminology of an art, science, etc.; technical nomenclature.
(d) a scientific or industrial process, invention, method, or the like.
(e) the sum of the ways in which social groups provide themselves with the
material objects of their civilization.
10. JANUARY 4, 2013 BY NICK WADDELL defined technology as
“Application of knowledge to the practical aims of human life or to
changing and manipulating the human environment. Technology includes
the use of materials, tools, techniques, and sources of power to make life
easier or more pleasant and work more productive. Whereas science is
concerned with how and why things happen, technology focuses on making
things happen.”
TEN DEFINITIONS OF SOCIETY AUTHORS AND DATE
VARIOUS DEFINITIONS AND VIEWS OF SOCIETY
1. YAGER 1992. Society can be defined as a group of humans living together
for self maintenance and self perpetuating and sharing their own institution
and culture.
2. It could also be defined as a long – standing group of people shaving
cultural aspects such as languages, dress, norms of behaviours and artistic
forms.
3. A formal association of people with similar interest e.g Medical Society
Science Teachers Society is all examples of societies.
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8. 4. EITZEU & ZINN, 2001. A social institution is a social arrangement that
directs or channels behaviors in prescribed ways in important areas of social
life.
5. AUGUST COMTE (reissued by Cambridge university press, 2009) : the
father of sociology saw society as a social organism possessing a harmony
of structure and function.
6. EMILE DURKHEIM (1858-1916) Edited January 2003: the founding
father of the modern sociology treated society as a reality in its own right.
According to Talcott Parsons: Society is a total complex of human
relationships in so far as they grow out of the action in terms of means-end
relationship intrinsic or symbolic
7. Silva, F.C (2007) & G.H Mead (1934): conceived society as an exchange of
gestures which involves the use of symbols.
8. MORRIS GINSBERG (MAR 24, 2009): defines society as a collection of
individuals united by certain relations or mode of behavior which mark them
off from others who do not enter into these relations or who differ from them
in behavior.
9. G.D.H. COLE (1920) sees Society as the complex of organized associations
and institutions with a community.
10. ACCORDING TO R.M. MACIVER AND CHARLES H.PAGE (1937) :
society is a system of usages and procedures of authority and mutual aid of
many groupings and divisions, of controls of human behavior and liberties.
This ever changing complex system which is called society is a web of
social relationship
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