Slides supporting the "Computer Networking: Principles, Protocols and Practice" ebook. The slides can be freely reused to teach an undergraduate computer networking class using the open-source ebook.

1. Week 8
TCP
Congestion control

2. Agenda
• TCP
• Connection establishment (more
details)
• Reliable data transfer
• Connection release
• Congestion control

3. Three-way handshake
ACK(seq=x+1, ack=y+1)
CONNECT.req
CONNECT.ind
SYN+ACK(ack=x+1,seq=y)
CONNECT.resp
CONNECT.conf
Initial sequence number (x)
Initial sequence number (y)
SYN(seq=x)
Connection established
Connection established
The sequence numbers of all
segments A->B will start at x+1
The sequence numbers of all
segments B->A will start at y+1
How is this number chosen ?
How is this number chosen ?

4. Initial sequence
number
• First approach
• Each TCP host has a clock that
increments the iss every 4 microsecond
• Current approach
• Each TCP host picks a random number
as its initial sequence number

5. The problem with
trusted addresses
B
T
A
ACK(seq=x+1, ack=y+1)
SYN+ACK(ack=x+1,seq=y)
SYN(seq=x)
Connection comes
from Alice’s IP
address don’t need
to ask username
and password
DATA(seq=x+1, ack=y+1)
Can Trudy hijack this
connection ?

6. TCP and spoofing
• Can Trudy create a fake TCP connection
by spoofing Alice's IP when she is away
?
• Trudy can send spoofed IP packets to
Bob using Alice’s address
• But Trudy cannot receive the packets
sent by Bob to Alice

7. TCP and spoofing
• Trudy's view of the transfer
SYN+ACK(Dst=A,ack=x+1,seq=y)
SYN(Src=A,seq=x)
ACK(seq=x+1, ack=y+1)
Data(Src=A,seq=x+1)
Trudy Alice
Ignored if Alice is offline
Can Trudy predict y ?
Bob

8. TCP establishment
SYN(Src=C,seq=x)
CONNECT.ind
SYN+ACK(Dest=C,ack=x+1,seq=y)
ACK(Src=A,seq=x)
CONNECT.req

9. DoS attack
SYN(Src=A,seq=x)
CONNECT.ind
CONNECT.ind
SYN+ACK(Dest=A,ack=x+1,seq=y)
SYN+ACK(Dest=B,ack=x+1,seq=z)
SYN(Src=B,seq=x)
• Attacker sends 1000s of (spoofed) SYNs

10. Countering DoS attacks
• Principle of the solution
• Server should not create any state
before being sure that the client can
receive the segments that it sends
SYN(Src=C,seq=x)
SYN+ACK(Dest=C,ack=x+1,seq=y)
ACK(Src=A,seq=x,
ack=y+1)
CONNECT.req
Server does not
store anything
Server checks
that third ACK is
valid
and creates state

11. SYN Cookies
SYN+ACK(ack=x+1,seq=y)
SYN(seq=x)
ACK(seq=x+1, ack=y+1)
CONNECT.req
CONNECT.ind
CONNECT.conf
No state created
y=Hash(IPClient,PortClient,Secret)
Verify that
ack=1+Hash(IPClient,PortClient,Secret)
State is created
• Server wants to verify 3rd ack without any
state
How should the
server select y ?

12. TCP options
Source port Destination port
Payload
32 bits
Checksum Urgent pointer
THL Reserved Flags
20 bytes
Sequence number
Optional header extension
Window
Acknowledgement number
Space in the
header with new
fields which can
be exchanged
over a
connection
Each TCP Option encoded as:
• Type
• Length
• Value
What is the maximum length of the
TCP header including options ?

13. TCP options
• Maximum Segment Size
• Selective acknowledgements
• Window Scale
• Timestamps
• Multipath TCP
• ...

14. Negotiating the utilization
of TCP Options
ACK(seq=x+1, ack=y+1)
CONNECT.req
CONNECT.ind
SYN+ACK(ack=x+1,seq=y) Option K
CONNECT.resp
CONNECT.conf
Initial sequence number (x)
Option K proposed
Initial sequence number (y)
Option K accepted
SYN(seq=x),Option K
Connection established
Option accepted
Connection established
The sequence numbers of all
segments A->B will start at x+1
The sequence numbers of all
segments B->A will start at y+1

15. The MSS Option
ACK(seq=x+1, ack=y+1)
CONNECT.req
CONNECT.ind
SYN+ACK(ack=x+1,seq=y) MSS=1000
CONNECT.resp
CONNECT.conf
Initial sequence number (x)
Will not accept segments longer
than 1200 bytes
Initial sequence number (y)
Will never send segments longer than
1200 bytes
Will not accept segments longer
than 1000 bytes
SYN(seq=x),MSS=1200
Connection established
Option accepted
Connection established
Will never send segments longer than
1000 bytes
The sequence numbers of all
segments A->B will start at x+1
The sequence numbers of all
segments B->A will start at y+1
What is the usual MSS size advertised
by an Internet host today ?

16. Agenda
• TCP
• Connection establishment
• Reliable data transfer (more details)
• Connection release
• Congestion control

17. Reliable data
transfer
(seq=127,"ef")
(seq=123,"abcd")
(seq=123,"abcd")
(seq=127,"ef")
(ack=123)
Retransmission timer
(ack=129)
(ack=129)
unnecessary
retransmission
"abcdef"
Retransmission of all
unacked segments
“ef” placed in buffer

18. Retransmission
timer
• How to compute it ?
• round-trip-time may change frequently
during the lifetime of a TCP connection

19. Retransmission timer
• Algorithm
• timer = mean(rtt) + 4*std_dev(rtt)
• est_mean(rtt) = (1- )*est_mean(rtt)
+ *rtt_measured
• est_std_dev=(1-)*est_std_dev+
*|rtt_measured - est_mean(rtt)|

20. RTT measurements
• Solution (Karn/Partridge)
• Do not measure rtt of retransmitted segments
(seq=123,"abcd")
(seq=120,"xyz")
(ack=123)
(ack=127)
measured rtt
Timer
which is the good rtt ?
(seq=123,"abcd")

21. With Timestamp option
(seq=123,TS=3, TS echo=12, "abcd")
(seq=120,TS=1, TS echo=7, "xyz")
(ack=123, TS=12, TS echo=1)
(ack=127, TS=17, TS echo=3)
measured rtt
timer
measured rtt
(seq=123,TS=5, TS echo=12, "abcd")

22. TCP Timestamps
• Two different roles
• Help in rtt measurements
• Protection Against Wrapped Sequence
Numbers (PAWS)

23. Fast retransmit
(seq=123,"abcd")
(ack=123)
(ack=123)
(ack=123)
(ack=123)
(ack=133)
(seq=123,"abcd")
"abcdefghij"
(seq=127,"ef")
Out of sequence, in buffer
(seq=129,"gh")
Out of sequence, in buffer
(seq=131,"ij")
Out of sequence, in buffer
3 duplicates was the initial specification.
Modern TCP stacks adjust the number
dynamically

24. Selective Acks
(seq=123,"abcd")
(seq=127,"ef")
(ack=123)
(seq=129,"gh")
(seq=131,"ij")
(ack=123,sack:127-128)
(ack=123, sack:127-130)
(ack=123, sack:127-132)
Lost
(seq=123,"abcd")
(ack=133)
"abcdefghij"
only 123-126 must be
retransmitted
• Receiver reports SACK blocks
• Negotiated during establishment

25. The SACK TCP Option
• Negotiated during establishment
• SACK-permitted TCP option
• SACK option format
How many SACK blocks in one TCP
segment ?
Kind=5 Length
Left edge 1st block
Right edge 1st block
Left edge last block
Right edge last block
SACK block

26. Delayed acks
• Sending an ack per segment is costly
• Tradeoff
• In sequence data segment
• no ack waiting, delay by up to 50 msec
• one ack waiting, send immediately
• Out-of-sequence data segment
• send ack immediately
What is the benefit of delayed
acks ?

27. When to send data ?
• When should a segment be sent ?
• Option 1
• After each write system call
• Option 2
• When there is a full segment of data
What is the solution that you
would recommand for a TCP

28. Nagle algorithm
• A new data segment can be sent if either
• This is a full segment (MSS bytes)
• There are no unacknowledged bytes

29. Observed IP packets
http://www.caida.org/research/traffic-analysis/pkt_size_distribution/graphs.xml

30. Limitation of TCP flow
control
Source port Destination port
Payload
32 bits
Checksum Urgent pointer
THL Reserved Flags
20 bytes
Sequence number
Optional header extension
Window
Acknowledgement number
16 bits !
What is the maximum throughput of a TCP
connection with a 64KB window and a 10 msec rtt
(in Mbps) ?

31. TCP flow control
• Performance function of window size
• Throughput ~= window/rtt
• TCP window : 16 bits field
• RFC1323 Window scale extension
rtt 1 msec 10 msec 100 msec
Window
8 Kbytes 65.6 Mbps 6.5 Mbps 0.66 Mbps
64 Kbytes 524.3 Mbps 52.4 Mbps 5.2 Mbps

32. Window scaling
• Window maintained as a 32 bits integer
by TCP implementations
• But sent as a scaled 16 bits in
segments
• Scaling factor announced in WScale
option in SYN/SYN+ACK segments

33. Agenda
• TCP
• Connection establishment
• Reliable data transfer
• Connection release (more details)
• Congestion control

34. Connection release
FIN(seq=x)
DISCONNECT.req (A-B)
DISCONNECT.ind(A-B)
ACK(ack=x+1)
DISCONNECT.conf(A-B)
ACK(ack=y+1)
DISCONNECT.conf(A-B)
DISCONNECT.req(B-A)
DISCONNECT.ind(B-A)
FIN(seq=y)
Time WAIT
Maintain state for this
connection during twice MSL
to be able to retransmit ACK
if a segment is received from
the other entity
outgoing connection closed
incoming connection closed
incoming connection closed
outgoing connection closed
State can be removed
Last sent data : x-1
Last sent data : y-1
Sent only after all data
up to x has been
received

35. TCP connection
release
FIN Wait1
SYN RCVD
CLOSE Wait
Established
FIN Wait2
LAST-ACK
TIME Wait
Closing
Closed
?FIN/!ACK
!FIN
?ACK
Timeout[2MSL]
?FIN/!ACK
?ACK
!FIN
?ACK
?FIN/!ACK
!FIN

36. Agenda
• TCP
• Congestion control
• AIMD in TCP
• Explicit Congestion Notification
• Modern TCP congestion control

37. The congestion
problem
Bottleneck link
N Mbps
How to efficiently share the
bandwidth ?

38. Delay versus
bandwidth
∑Bwi
observed
rtt
min rtt
buffer almost
overloaded
huge packet
losses

39. Router buffers
• Rule of thumb
• Routers should have RTT * C of buffers
• RTT is average rtt for flows
• C is bandwidth of output link
• Backbone routers
• 𝐵𝑢𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟 ≥
𝑅𝑇𝑇 ∗𝐶
√𝑁
N. McKeown, G. Appenzeller, I. Keslassy, Sizing Router Buffers (Redux),
SIGCOMM CCR October 2019

40. Congestion signals
• Main types of congestion signals
• Packet loss
• most popular signal
• Explicit Congestion Notification
• requires router cooperation
• Increase in measured round-trip-time
• can be fragile

41. Additive Increase
• No congestion ?
• All acks move window
• Additive increase
• Increment cwnd by one MSS every rtt
Cwnd
Time

42. Faster increase
• How to speed up the growth of the
congestion window at connection startup
?
• Slow-start
• Double cwnd every rtt
Cwnd
Slow-start
exponential increase of cwnd
Time
Max window

43. Multiplicative
decrease
• How to detect congestion ?
• Three duplicate acks
• mild congestion for TCP
• cwnd/2 and restart additive increase
• Expiration of retransmission timer
• severe congestion
• Reset cwnd at 1 MSS
• Perform slow-start until half previous cwnd
and then continue with congestion
avoidance

44. Cwnd Fast retransmit
Threshold
Threshold
Slow-start
exponential increase of cwnd
Congestion avoidance
linear increase of cwnd
Fast retransmit
Mild
congestion

45. Severe congestion
Cwnd
Time
Timer expiration
Threshold
Timer expiration
Threshold
Slow-start
exponential increase of cwnd
Congestion avoidance
linear increase of cwnd

46. AIMD in TCP
# Initialisation
cwnd = MSS ssthresh= swin dupacks=0
# Ack arrival (assumes no delayed acks)
if tcp.ack > snd.una : # new ack, no congestion
if dupacks==0: # not currently recovering from loss
if cwnd < ssthresh :
# slow-start : increase quickly cwnd
# double cwnd every rtt
cwnd = cwnd + MSS
else:
# congestion avoidance : increase slowly cwnd
# increase cwnd by one mss every rtt
cwnd = cwnd+ mss*(mss/cwnd)
else: # recovering from loss
cwnd=ssthresh # deflate cwnd rfc5681
dupacks=0

47. Slow-start
cwnd=1000
ssthresh=64000 0-999
ACK(1000)
1000-1999
2000-2999
ACK(2000) ACK(3000)
cwnd=2000
ssthresh=64000
cwnd=3000
ssthresh=64000
cwnd=4000
ssthresh=64000
3000-3999
4000-4999
5000-5999
6000-6999
ACK(4000
)
ACK(7000
)
cwnd ?

48. Congestion avoidance
cwnd=2000
ssthresh=4000 1000-1999
2000-2999
ACK(2000)
ACK(3000)
cwnd=3000
ssthresh=4000
cwnd=4000
ssthresh=4000
cwnd=4000+(1000*1000/4000)=4250
3000-3999
4000-4999
5000-5999
6000-6999
ACK(4000
)
ACK(7000
)
cwnd=4250+(1000*1000/4250)=4485
cwnd=4485+(1000*1000/4485)=4707
cwnd=4707+(1000*1000/4707)=4919
cwnd ?

49. AIMD in TCP
else: # duplicate or old ack
if tcp.ack==snd.una: # duplicate acknowledgment
dupacks++
if dupacks==1 or dupacks==2:
send_next_unacked_segment # rfc3042
if dupacks==3:
retransmitsegment(snd.una)
ssthresh=max(cwnd/2,2*MSS)
cwnd=ssthresh
if dupacks>3: # rfc5681
cwnd=cwnd+MSS # inflate cwnd
else: # ack for old segment, ignored
Expiration of the retransmission timer:
send(snd.una) # retransmit first lost segment
sshtresh=max(cwnd/2,2*MSS)
cwnd=MSS

50. TCP and losses
cwnd=1000 0-999
ACK(1000)
1000-1999
2000-2999
ACK(2000)
cwnd=2000
cwnd=3000
3000-3999
4000-4999
ACK(2000
)
ACK(2000
)
cwnd=3000
dupack=1
cwnd=3000
dupack=2
write(5000 bytes)

51. TCP and losses
cwnd=3000
dupack=2
2000-2999
RTO expires
cwnd=1000
dupack=0
ssthresh=2000
ACK(5000
)
cwnd=2000
dupack=0

52. TCP and losses
cwnd=1000
ssthresh=64000 0-999
ACK(1000)
1000-1999
2000-2999
ACK(2000) ACK(3000)
cwnd=2000
ssthresh=64000
cwnd=3000
ssthresh=64000
cwnd=4000
ssthresh=64000
3000-3999
4000-4999
5000-5999
6000-6999
write(10000 bytes)

53. TCP and losses
cwnd=4000
3000-3999
cwnd=2000
dupack=0
ssthresh=2000
ACK(9000)
7000-7999
8000-8999
ACK(3000
)
ACK(3000
)
ACK(3000
)
dupack=1
dupack=2
dupack=3
9000-9999
ACK(10000)

54. Simplified model
• Assume all segment losses are periodic
and the every 1/p segment is lost
Cwnd(segments)
W
W/2
0
0 W/2 W 3W/2 2W time(rtt)
Surface
It can be shown that the throughput of a TCP
connection can be approximated by :
Maximum throughput without losses Throughput with
losses/congestion

55. Tuning TCP @google
• Objectives
• Minimize time to receive result from
search engine
• HTTP GET fits a single segment
• HTTP Response in <16 KBytes

56. Initial retransmission
timer
• What happens if SYN or SYN+ACK is
lost ?

57. Initial congestion
window
• What is the impact of initial congestion
window and the slow-start on the time to
receive an HTTP response ?

58. Initial TCP congestion
window today
Source: M. Bagnulo, tcpmp mailing list, Nov 16th, 2016

59. TCP Fast Open
• Can we we reduce the overhead of the
three-way handshake ?
• HTTP/1.1
• Putting data inside SYN and SYN+ACK

60. TCP Fast Open
• Is this safe ?
• Risk of denial of service attack
SYN(Src=C,seq=x, HTTP GET)
CONNECT.ind+HTTP GET
SYN+ACK(Dest=C,ack=x+1,seq=y, HTTP Resp)
CONNECT.req+Data
ACK(Src=A,seq=x)
Is this safe
?

61. Safe TCP Fast Open
• How to make TCP Fast Open safe in the
presence of attackers ?
• Server needs to ensure that SYN
segment does not come from an
attacker who sent a spoofed packet

62. Agenda
• TCP
• Congestion control
• AIMD in TCP
• Explicit Congestion Notification
• Modern Congestion Control

63. Basic ECN
• Issues
• What happens if the returning ECN-echo is
lost ?
• How can we deploy ECN?
R1 R2
A D
Congestion Notification
Mark the IP packet that caused congestion
by setting one bit flag (CE: Congestion Experienced)
TCP source behaviour
Upon reception of a ECN-Echo=1 TCP ack,
behave as if the corresponding segment was lost
(perform congestion avoidance).
TCP destination behaviour
Upon reception of a CE=1 IP packet indicate the
congestion to the source by setting a special
flag (ECN-Echo) in the returning TCP ack

64. Dealing with lost acks
R1 R2
A D
TCP receiver behavior
Upon reception of a CE=1 IP packet indicate the
congestion to the source by setting a special
flag (ECN-Echo) in all returning TCP acks until
a TCP TPDU with CWR set is received
TCP sender behavior
Upon reception of a ECN-Echo=1 TCP ack,
perform congestion avoidance and set CWR
flag in next TCP PDU

65. Deploying ECN
• On endhosts
• Update the TCP stack to support ECN
• Negotiate ECN usage in SYN
• Encode ECN info in
packets/segments
• For other transport protocols…

66. Deploying ECN
• On routers
• Routers need to distinguish between
• ECN-capable hosts that react to ECN
• If congestion, such packets are
marked
• Other hosts that do not react to ECN
• If congestion, such packets are
dropped

67. ECN support on
routers
• Specialised buffer acceptance
algorithms
R1 R2
A D
In case of congestion
If ECT bit is set
Mark the IP packet that caused congestion
by setting on bit flag (CE: Congestion Experienced)
If ECT bit is not set
Discard the IP packet that caused congestion
ECN-capable source
If destination is also ECN capable
Set ECT bit in all IP packets towards destination
Otherwise
Reset ECT bit

68. Agenda
• TCP
• Congestion control
• AIMD in TCP
• Explicit Congestion Notification
• Modern Congestion Control

69. Issues with AIMD
• Performance on high bandwidth*delay links
• Each loss forces TCP in congestion
avoidance and grows slowly
• Bufferbloat
• TCP AIMD tries to saturate buffers until it
causes congestion
• Inflates round-trip-times
• Fairness
• TCP sources with a lower rtt are favored

70. TCP Congestion
Controls
• Supposed to be fair
• MSS size
• rtt
• Many congestion
control schemes
urce: B. Turkovic, F. Kuipers and S. Uhlig, Fifty Shades of Congestion Control: A Perform
and Interactions Evaluation, https://arxiv.org/pdf/1903.03852.pdf

71. CUBIC
• A modern congestion controller designed for
high bandwidth*delay product links
• Default on Linux
• Principles
• Use concave and convex profiles of cubic
function to increase cwnd
• CUBIC behaves like AIMD with small
rtt/bw
• CUBIC provides linear bw sharing among
flows with different rtt

72. CUBIC
• Congestion window increase during
congestion avoidance
urce: B. Turkovic, F. Kuipers and S. Uhlig, Fifty Shades of Congestion Control: A Performa
and Interactions Evaluation, https://arxiv.org/pdf/1903.03852.pdf and RFC8312
cwnd=𝑐𝑤𝑛𝑑𝑚𝑎𝑥+
C× (Δ−
3
𝑐𝑤𝑛𝑑𝑚𝑎𝑥 ×
1−𝛽
𝐶
)3
Packet loss:
cwnd=𝛽 × 𝑐𝑤𝑛𝑑
Parameters
𝛽 = 0.7 𝐶 = 0.4

73. Bottleneck Bandwidth
and Round-Trip-Time
(BBR)
• Recent congestion control scheme that aims at
achieving high throughput and low delay
• Operates in four phases
• Startup (similar to slow-start until measured rate
stops increase)
• Drain (empty the queues, send at 0.75 rate)
• compute rttmin over last 10 seconds
• Probe bandwidth every 8 rtt (send at 1.25 rate for
one rtt and then at 0.75 rate)
• Probe RTT (reduce rate for more precise rttmin)

74. Reno, CUBIC, BBR
Cwnd
ssthresh
Slow-start
exponential increase of cwnd
Congestion avoidance
linear increase of cwnd

75. Reno, CUBIC, BBR
Cwnd
Slow-start
exponential increase of cwnd
Congestion avoidance
ssthresh
W_max

76. Reno, CUBIC, BBR
Cwnd
Startup Congestion avoidance
Fast retransmit

77. Delay-based
techniques
• TCP Vegas : intuition
• Expected rate =
𝑐𝑤𝑛𝑑
𝑟𝑡𝑡𝑚𝑖𝑛
• Estimate buffer size at bottleneck every rtt
Δ = 𝑐𝑤𝑛𝑑 −
𝑟𝑡𝑡𝑖 − 𝑟𝑡𝑡𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑟𝑡𝑡𝑖
• if Δ > 4 => cwnd=cwnd-MSS //congestion
• if Δ < 2 => cwnd=cwnd+MSS // increase

78. CUBIC, Vegas and
BBR
urce: B. Turkovic, F. Kuipers and S. Uhlig, Fifty Shades of Congestion Control: A Performa
and Interactions Evaluation, https://arxiv.org/pdf/1903.03852.pdf and RFC8312

79. Two TCP connections
Source: B. Turkovic, et al., Fifty Shades of Congestion Control: A Performance
and Interactions Evaluation, https://arxiv.org/pdf/1903.03852.pdf

80. Two TCP connections,
different rtt
Source: B. Turkovic, et al., Fifty Shades of Congestion Control: A Performance
and Interactions Evaluation, https://arxiv.org/pdf/1903.03852.pdf

81. Two different congestion
controllers
Source: B. Turkovic, et al., Fifty Shades of Congestion Control: A Performance
and Interactions Evaluation, https://arxiv.org/pdf/1903.03852.pdf