This document provides an overview of dynamic memory allocation in C++. It discusses the differences between automatic and dynamic arrays, and how dynamic arrays are allocated on the heap using functions like malloc() and free(). The key points covered are: - Automatic arrays have a fixed size set at compile-time, while dynamic arrays can have a size determined at runtime by allocating memory on the heap. - Malloc() is used to request a block of memory on the heap and return a void pointer to it, which must then be cast to the proper type. - When dynamic memory is allocated, the pointer must be checked for null and the memory freed using free() to avoid memory leaks. - Responsibility for

1. 1
(5) Basics of the C++ Programming Language
Nico Ludwig (@ersatzteilchen)

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TOC
● (5) Basics of the C++ Programming Language
– The Heap: Dynamic Memory and dynamic Array Allocation
– Automatic versus Dynamic Arrays
– A Glimpse of the Topic "Stack versus Heap"
● "Geometric" Properties of the Heap and the Stack
– Lost Pointers and Memory Leaks
– Advanced C-strings: Buffers, Concatenation and Formatting
● Sources:
– Bruce Eckel, Thinking in C++ Vol I
– Bjarne Stroustrup, The C++ Programming Language

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Automatic Arrays have a Compile Time fixed Size
● The size of automatic arrays can't be set at run time:
int count = 0;
std::cout<<"How many numbers do you want to enter?"<<std::endl;
std::cin>>count;
if (0 < count) {
int numbers[count]; // Invalid (in C++)! The symbol count must be a compile-time constant!
for (int i = 0; i < count; ++i) {
std::cout<<"Enter number: "<<(i + 1)<<std::endl;
std::cin>>numbers[i];
}
}

4. 4
The Correct Way of creating dynamic Arrays
● In C/C++, dynamic memory allocation on the heap is needed in such a case.
– In C, we access the heap with the functions std::malloc() and std::free() in <cstdlib>.
– The process of requesting memory manually is called "allocation of memory".
– std::malloc() creates a block of specified size in the heap memory and returns a void* to this block to the caller.
● For array creation the []-declarator is not used with std::malloc()!
● (Dynamically created arrays can have the length 0!)
– The caller needs to check the returned void* for validity (Did std::malloc() succeed?).
● The returned void* must not be 0!
– The caller needs to cast this void* to the correct pointer-type.
– Then the dynamically created array can be used like an "ordinary" array.
– When the work is done, the array must be manually freed somewhere in the code.
● In this course we make a distinction between heap
and free store. This distinction is not defined by
the C++ standard. Instead it is used colloquially to
tell the memory managed by
std::malloc()/std::free() from that managed by
new/delete, because they could work in different
memory locations each.

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The Correct Way of creating dynamic Arrays in Code
● Let's review and correct the example of dynamic array creation:
int count = 0;
std::cout<<"How many numbers do you want to enter?"<<std::endl;
std::cin>>count;
if (0 < count) { // Create a properly sized block in heap. The function std::malloc() returns a generic
// pointer (void*) and we have to cast this generic pointer to the type we need.
int* numbers = static_cast<int*>(std::malloc(sizeof(int) * count));
if (numbers) { // Check, whether std::malloc() was successful.
for (int i = 0; i < count; ++i) { // Loop over the dynamically created array:
std::cout<<"Enter number: "<<(i + 1)<<std::endl;
// Use the block like an ordinary array, e.g. with the []-operator:
std::cin>>numbers[i];
}
std::free(numbers); // When done with the array, it must be freed!
}
}
● Consequently check the success of std::malloc()!
- This is called defensive programming.
● Why do we need to cast here?
● This is the first time we really need to cast. -
Here we need to cast a pointer to memory of
raw type to a pointer to memory of the type we
need.
● The void* represents a pointer to memory of
unknown type; casting is required to get a type
with which we can work. A void* is irrelevant by
itself, we can't even dereference it. The only
thing we can do with it is comparing it with other
pointers or 0.
● Interestingly the conversion from void* to
another pointer type is seen as conversion
between related types, so a static_cast is
sufficient.

6. Example: Why dynamic Memory is needed: Returning Arrays
6
● Automatic arrays can't be returned from functions:
int* GetValues() { // Defining a function that returns a pointer to a
int values[] = {1, 2, 3}; // locally defined array (created on the stack) .
return values; // This pointer points to the 1st item of values.
}
//-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
int* vals = GetValues(); // Semantically wrong! vals points to a
std::cout<<"2. val is: "<<vals[1]<<std::endl; // discarded memory location.
// The array "values" is gone away, vals points to its scraps, probably rubbish!
● In C/C++, dynamic memory allocation on the heap is needed in such a case.
– Again, the C way is to use the functions std::malloc() and std::free().
– 1. In GetValues() the dynamic array will be created and returned.
– 2. The caller can then use the returned array.
– 3. Then the caller has to free the dynamically created array!

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The Correct Way of returning Arrays
● Let's review and correct the example of returning an array:
int* GetValues() { // Allocate an array of three ints:
int* values = static_cast<int*>(std::malloc(sizeof(int) * 3));
if (values) { // Check std::malloc()'s success and fill the array. Indeed the
values[0] = 1; // allocation of memory and assigning of array values must be
values[1] = 2; // separated, when std::malloc() is used (there is no Resource
values[2] = 3; // Acquisition is Initialization (RAII)).
} // If std::malloc() failed, let's just "forward" the 0, the caller needs to check for 0!
return values; // Return the pointer to the heap block (i.e. to the array).
}
//----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
int* vals = GetValues();
if (vals) { // We have to check for nullity again, GetValues() could have failed!
std::cout<<"2nd value is: "<<vals[1]<<std::endl; // Use vals as array!
// >2nd value is 2
std::free(vals); // The caller (!) needs to free vals!
}
● Once again: Consequently check the success of
std::malloc()! - Program defensively!
● RAII means that a resource, which requires e.g.
dynamic memory or other operating system
resources, will be initialized and freed analogous
to the lifetime of a variable. - Practically it means
that a resource from dynamic memory can be
controlled by a variable on the stack! - This can be
implemented with user defined types.

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Heap Functions' Signatures in Detail
void* malloc(size_t size); // memory allocate in <cstdlib>
// size – The size of a portion of the heap in bytes. size_t is a typedef for a unit representing a
// count of bytes on a machine, typically it is of type unsigned int.
// returns – A generic pointer to the allocated portion, or 0 in case of error (e.g. out of memory).
// The pointer is generic because std::malloc() can't know the type of the allocated contents, it
// just knows the size that the caller passed and it returns the location of that block in case
// of success. The pointer must be cast to the type, the caller awaits. - We select the color of
// the contact lenses to view the block.
void free(void* ptr); // in <cstdlib>
// ptr – The pointer to a block of content, allocated with std::malloc(), std::calloc() or
// std::realloc(). The attempt to free a pointer to a static variable is undefined. Calling std::free()
// with 0 is allowed, it just has no effect.
● Can we assume that std::malloc() returns a
pointer to a gap-free portion in the heap?
• As far as our current knowledge is concerned:
yes! It is required, because std::malloc() can be
used to create arrays, and arrays need to
represent contiguous blocks of memory.

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Wrap up: automatic and dynamic Arrays in Code
● Creation of automatic arrays:
int autoArray[100];
// This is a simple automatic array with a compile time constant size of 100.
● Creation and freeing of dynamic arrays:
int* dynamicArray = static_cast<int*>(std::malloc(sizeof(int) * 100));
// - Indeed the syntax looks weird, not even similar to the autoArray example.
// - The type of the variable we assign to is int-pointer.
// - The function std::malloc() is used to create a raw memory-block in heap.
// - std::malloc() returns a generic pointer (void*) to this raw memory-block, it does so, because
// it doesn't know, what the programmer wants to do.
// - So, as programmers we need to tell C/C++ that we want to use the allocated memory
// block as int-array, therefor we need to cast the generic pointer (void*) to int-pointer . - We
// "put contact lenses on".
std::free(dynamicArray); // Free the dynamically created array in the right place.
● Whether objects are stored on the heap or the
stack is an implementation detail in many other
languages, not so in C++, because the programer
explicitly decides, where an object will be created.
(Annotated C# Language Reference, Anders
Hejlsberg et. al.)

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But, how does returning of "normal" Variables compute?
● When a local variable is returned from a function, it will be simply copied.
int GetValue() { // Just returns an int:
int value = 42; // value is an automatic variable on the stack.
return value; // Returns value. value will be popped from GetValue()'s stack.
// Then the content of value will be pushed to the stack of the caller function.
// In effect value will be copied to its caller when GetValue() returns.
}
//------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
void Foo() { // Calls GetValue():
int val = GetValue(); // The returned int was pushed on Foo()'s stack by GetValue() and
// will be copied into the variable val.
}
● Arrays can't be returned by value, so they can't be copied!
– Here the story is completely different, we have to use the heap generally!
● Arrays can also be generated as static arrays
instead of automatic arrays. A static array can be
returned from a function. The lifetime of a static
array is not restricted to a function's local scope.

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Stack vs. Heap: It's not a Mystery, just two Concepts
● The stack is a conceptual place, where local (auto) variables reside.
– This is a little oversimplification, but each function has its own stack.
– The lifetime of a stack variable is visible by its scope (i.e. automatic: auto).
– The stack is controlled by hardware and owned by hardware.
● The heap is a conceptual place, where all dynamic contents reside.
– All functions of a program generally use the same heap.
– Dynamic content must be created by the programmer manually.
– The heap is controlled by software, the heap manager (std::malloc(), std::free() etc.).
– There is always an "entity" that is in charge for the allocated heap memory.
– This "entity" is responsible for explicit freeing the allocated heap memory.
– In the end, the lifetime of a dynamic content is controlled by the entity's programmer.
● We'd try to control as less memory as possible manually: using the stack is preferred!
● What is a scope?
● See RAII!

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Stack vs. Heap: In Memory (RAM)
● There is the illusion that all the machine's memory is owned by a program.
– This is not true, each program uses its own portion of memory respectively.
– But in the following graphics we stick to this illusion.
● The memory is segmented, different segments have different functions.
● Esp. the stack and heap segment often have special "geometric" properties:
– The heap segment resides at lower addresses than the stack segment.
– The addresses of subsequent stack variables are decreasing.
● This is called "descending stack".
– The stack evolves/grows to lower, the heap to greater addresses.
● In fact, stack and heap grow to meet each other halfway!
– Compared to the stack, the heap is very big, because dynamic contents are typically bigger than automatic contents (e.g. local
variables).

13. 13
Stack vs. Heap: Conventional Locations in Memory
0
232 - 1
Stack segment
Heap segment
● Why 232-1?
● Well 232 is 4294967296 (ca. 4GB), but we have
to subtract 1 in order to get space for the
address 0!

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The lost Pointer to the Heap Memory in Code
void F(int count) {
// Allocating an array of three ints. F() is in charge of the dynamic content, to which
// p points!
int* p = static_cast<int*>(std::malloc(sizeof(int) * count));
// The auto variable p will go out of scope and will be popped from stack. But the
// referred dynamic content is still around!
}
//-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
// Calling F():
F(3);
// Oops, nobody did free the dynamic content, to which p was pointing to! Now there is
// no pointer to the dynamic content in avail. This is a semantic error, a memory leak of
// sizeof(int) * 3. The compiler will not see any problem here!

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The lost Pointer to the Heap Memory in Memory
Stack segment
Heap segment
0
232 - 1
0xc0005968 p
? 0
1 2
4B
4B
void F(int count) { // Allocating an array of three ints.
int* p = static_cast<int*>(std::malloc(sizeof(int) * count));
if (p) { // Check std::malloc()'s success.
for (int i = 0; i < count; ++i) {
p[i] = i;
}
}
}
// Calling F():
F(3);
// After F() did run: oops! The pointer to the allocated three
// ints is lost, the allocated memory is orphaned. We have a
// memory leak of 12B.
:-(

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How to handle dynamic Content responsibly in Code
int* G(int count) {
// Allocating an array of three ints. G() is in charge of the dynamic content, to which
// p points to!
int* p = static_cast<int*>(std::malloc(sizeof(int) * count));
// Returning p. Then G()'s caller is in charge of the dynamic content!
return p; // The stack variable p will go out of scope and will be popped from the
// stack. But the referred dynamic content is still around!
}
//-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
// Calling G():
int* t = G(3);
if (t) { // Fine! The returned pointer will be checked and freed correctly.
std::free(t);
}

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Handling dynamic Content responsibly in Memory
Stack segment
Heap segment
0
232 - 1
0xc0005968 p
1 2
0
4B
4B
int* G(int count) { // Allocating an array of three ints.
int* p = static_cast<int*>(std::malloc(sizeof(int) * count));
if (p) { // Check std::malloc()'s success.
for (int i = 0; i < count; ++i) {
p[i] = i;
}
}
return p; // This time: return p!
}
int* t = G(3); // Call G() and receive the pointer.
if (t) { // Check and free the content (i.e. the
std::free(t); // memory from the heap).
}
// The local variable t is still on the stack.
t

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Potential Problems with Heap Memory
● It is needed to check, whether allocation was successful!
● It is needed to free dynamic content in the right place manually.
– We have to keep in mind that there is no garbage collection in C/C++.
– So, we should not forget to free dynamically created content!
– We should free dynamically created content as early as possible, but not too early!
– We should not free dynamically created content more than once!
– We should not free dynamically created content that we don't own.
● It's impossible to distinguish pointers to the stack from pointers to the heap.
– Don't free pointers to the stack (i.e. pointers not from the heap)! -> It will result in undefined behavior!
● Wherever function interfaces deal with dynamically content, it should be documented where this memory must be freed.
Who's the owner? Who's in charge?

19. 19
More Information about Heap Memory
● There exist two further useful functions to deal with heap memory (<cstdlib>):
– std::realloc() resizes a given block of heap memory.
– std::calloc() allocates a block of size * count and initiates all "items" with 0.
– The returned value must be checked for 0-pointer and freed with std::free().
● Free store in C++:
– In C++ the heap segment can also be used as free store.
– The operators new and delete act as interface to the free store.
– These operators represent C++' way to dynamically allocate/deallocate user defined types.
– In general, C's heap memory and C++' free store are incompatible.
● Often 3rd party libraries invent own allocation/deallocation mechanisms:
– to deal with platform specialities,
– and/or to encapsulate usage of dynamic contents.
● std::realloc():
• Present items will be preserved up to the
passed length.
• Possibly a pointer to another location in the
heap is returned, rendering the passed address
invalid.
• The returned pointer should be checked for 0,
before it is assigned to the passed pointer
variable. Don't do it like so: p = std::realloc(p,
5000)! If reallocation didn't succeed the memory
to which the passed pointer p refers won't be
touched.

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Putting Heap Memory to work with C-strings
● As c-strings are char arrays underneath, they share the limits of other arrays:
– Limitation 1: We can not resize/extend or assign c-strings.
– Limitation 2: We can not return an automatic c-string variable from a function.
● These limitations can be solved by usage of the heap memory:
– Pattern for 1: Create a dynamically sized char-array to hold a modified/resized copy of the original c-string. E.g.: Replace a
substring of the original c-string.
– Pattern for 2: Copy a c-string into a dynamically sized char-array and return the pointer from a function.
● Sidebar: Peculiarities of c-strings, not directly shared with other arrays:
– C-strings are 0-terminated, so the very last char-array item contains a 0.
– We can get a c-string's length (std::strlen()), this is impossible with other arrays.
– As c-strings are const char-arrays, we can't modify them.
– Indeed we can return a c-string literal from a function!
● Why is it possible to return a literal c-string from a
function?
● C-string literals are stored in the static portion of
memory (they are an example of a static arrays,
which were mentioned earlier)! We'll discuss
static memory in a future lecture.

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The Roles of const char[] and char[]
● When we need to create an array that must be filled afterwards, we can not use arrays with const items. Instead we need
arrays as modifiable buffers.
– This is needed, cause we need to assign to the items, in order to modify the content!
● So, c-strings are of type const char[], their matching buffer type is char[].
– The buffers we allocate dynamically for char-based c-strings are always of type char[].
● Where c-string functions accept const char*'s as parameters, we can safely pass char[] buffers; they will be decayed to const
char*.
● To sum up (char-based c-strings):
– C-strings are of type const char[], they're not modifiable
– C-string buffers are of type char[], they're modifiable.

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Working with C-strings: Functions for individual Chars
● A rich set of functions dealing with individual chars can be found in <cctype>.
● Character predicates (these functions await an int/char and return an int/bool):
– std::islower(), std::isupper(), std::isalpha(), std::isdigit(), std::isspace() etc.
char ch = '1';
if (std::isdigit(ch)) {
std::cout<<ch<<" is a digit!"<<std::endl;
// >1 is a digit
}
● Character casing (these functions await an int/char and return an int/char):
– std::tolower() and std::toupper(), their result must be cast to char for presentation.
char ch = 'X';
// If ch is no upper case letter, the same char will be returned.
std::cout<<ch<<" as lower case: "<<static_cast<char>(std::tolower(ch))<<std::endl;
// >X as lower case: x
● If we pass a non-letter char to
std::tolower()/std::toupper() the passed char will
just be returned.

23. 23
Working with C-strings: Parsing C-strings
● There exists a set of functions to parse c-strings to fundamental types in <cstdlib>.
– Parsing means reading a c-string and reinterpret its content e.g. as fundamental type.
– Most important: std::atoi() (c-string to int) and std::atof() (c-string to double).
– These functions return 0 in case of error.
// A c-string that can be interpreted as int:
const char anInt[] = "42";
// Parse the int from anInt's content:
int theInt = std::atoi(anInt);
// A c-string that can be interpreted as double:
const char aDouble[] = "1.786";
// Parse the double from aDouble's double:
double theDouble = std::atof(aDouble);

24. 24
Working with C-strings: Modify the Case of a C-string
● Putting it all together, here a first example of c-string modification:
const char* oldText = "home"; // The original plain c-string.
// Create a buffer in the heap, large enough to hold the original c-string. The buffer needs a size of:
// sizeof(char) * (count of chars/letters + one byte for the 0-termination).
char* newText = static_cast<char*>(std::malloc(sizeof(char) * (std::strlen(oldText) + 1)));
if (newText) { // Check std::malloc()'s success.
// Loop over the original c-string and store the upper case variant of each char and the
// 0-termination into newText at the same index.
for (int i = 0; i < std::strlen(oldText) + 1; ++i) {
newText[i] = std::toupper(oldText[i]);
}
std::cout<<"The modified text: "<<newText<<std::endl;
// >The modified text: HOME"
std::free(newText); // Free the buffer.
}

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C-strings: Formatting and Concatenation of C-strings
● With the function std::sprintf() in <cstdlib> we can create and format c-strings.
int sprintf(char* buffer, const char* format, ...); // in <cstdlib>
// buffer – A char buffer that will contain the effectively created c-string content. The content
// of the buffer is the virtual result of this function; buffer is rather an output parameter,
// than an input parameter!
// format – A c-string that contains a format that describes the disguise of the c-string
// to create. This "format-string" defines a template of the c-string to create, with
// placeholders of values to be replaced.
// ... – An arbitrary set of further arguments that are used to "satisfy" and replace the
// placeholders in the "format-string". (The ...-notation is called "ellipsis" in C++.)
// returns – The count of resulting chars in buffer (w/o the 0-termination).

26. 26
C-strings: "Format-strings" and Examples
● There exist many type field characters acting as format placeholders.
– But %d and %s (maybe also %p for pointers) are the most important ones:
char buffer[1000]; // buffer is an automatic fixed buffer of large extend.
// The placeholder %d awaits an int to be replaced:
std::sprintf(buffer, "Answer: %d items", 42);
std::cout<<buffer<<std::endl; // Will print "Answer: 42 items".
// The placeholder %s awaits another c-string to be replaced:
std::sprintf(buffer, "It's %s's problem!", "Rick");
std::cout<<buffer<<std::endl; // Will print "It's Ricks's problem!".
// Now concatenation of e.g. three c-strings can be accomplished:
std::sprintf(buffer, "%s%s%s", "Weyland Yutani", " at ", "LV-426");
std::cout<<buffer<<std::endl; // Will print "Weyland Yutani at LV-426".
– There are different ways to control the format in a more detailed fashion:
● Additional flags control alignment and padding, also the width and precision can be controlled.
– If the format-string and the arguments don't match the behavior is undefined.
● std::sprintf():
● Superfluous arguments will be ignored.
● Too few arguments result in undefined behavior.

27. 27
C-strings: Formatting C-strings the Dynamic Way
● In most scenarios we don't know, how large the buffer must be to hold the result.
– We can define a very large (maybe auto) buffer, but this is neither safe nor efficient.
– Preferred: we can calculate the buffer length and create it dynamically!
● Let's learn how this works.

28. 28
C-strings: Formatting C-strings the Dynamic Way in Code
● This is a good way to safely concatenate c-strings with efficient memory usage:
const char s1[] = "Weyland Yutani";
const char s2[] = " at ";
const char s3[] = "LV-426";
// Calculate the length of the resulting c-string:
int countOfChars = std::strlen(s1) + std::strlen(s2) + std::strlen(s3);
// Allocate buffer with the exact size, sufficient for our situation:
char* buffer = static_cast<char*>(std::malloc(sizeof(char) * (countOfChars + 1)));
if (buffer) { // Check std::malloc()'s success then do the concatenation:
std::sprintf(buffer, "%s%s%s", s1, s2, s3);
std::cout<<buffer<<std::endl;
// >Weyland Yutani at LV-426"
std::free(buffer); // Free buffer.
}

29. 29
Thank you!