Young migrants in Europe face both opportunities and challenges in education and employment. Key barriers include lack of language proficiency, discrimination, and having foreign qualifications that are not fully recognized. Policies like providing language education, enforcing anti-discrimination laws, and giving opportunities to obtain domestic qualifications can help young migrants overcome barriers and maximize their potential benefits for themselves and society.

1. Young migrants in Europe:
opportunities and challenges
Anthony Heath
University of Oxford

2. The key questions
• What are the major opportunities and
challenges for young migrants in Europe in
education and employment?
• What are the major barriers they face in
realizing their full potential for themselves
and the wider society?
• What policy responses might be considered?

3. The research base
• Extensive cross-national research using OECD’s
Programme for International Student Assessment
(PISA)
• More limited cross-national research on young
migrants in the labour market, but see
OECD (2010) Equal Opportunities? The
labour market integration of the children of
immigrants
A Heath and Sin Yi Cheung (2007) Unequal
Chances: Ethnic minorities in Western Labour
markets.

4. Generational differences
• Crucial to distinguish generations and not lump them all together.
• Distinguish between
the first generation, who arrived as adults,
the 1.5 generation who arrived before or during their school
years, and
the second generation, who were born in the country of
destination.
• The education of the first generation will reflect the educational
opportunities in the country of origin
• The education of the 1.5 generation may reflect specific problems
with learning a new language or disrupted school careers or
different educational standards
• The second generation will typically be fluent in the language of the
destination country and have domestic qualifications.

5. Ethnic differences
Crucial to distinguish ethnic groups and not lump them together.
• Young migrants from East and South Asia often outperform
the majority group in educational attainment.
• Migrants from South or East European backgrounds are often
relatively disadvantaged.
• ‘Postcolonial’ migrants are also somewhat disadvantaged (eg
Caribbeans in GB, France or the Netherlands)
• Labour migrants (and their children) from less developed
countries experience the largest disadvantages.
Cross-national comparisons that ignore these differences in the
composition of their migrants can be seriously misleading.

6. Gross/net differences in standardized test scores (Asian
background)
-0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
Chinese/E Asian
Chinese/E Asian
Chinese/E Asian
Chinese/E Asian
Chinese/E Asian
Indian/S Asian
Indian/S Asian Gross
Indian/S Asian Net
SE Asian
SE Asian
Pakistani
Iranian
Iraqi
West Asian

7. Gross/net differences (European background)
-2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5
FSU
FSU
F in n is h
D a n is h
N o rwe g ia n
P o lis h
P o lis h
E x- Y u g o s la v
E x- Y u g o s la v
E x- Y u g o s la v
E x- Y u g o s la v Gross
A lb a n ia n
Net
Ita lia n / S E u r
Ita lia n / S E u r
Ita lia n / S E u r
Ita lia n / S E u r
P o rtu g u e s e / Ib e ria n
P o rtu g u e s e / Ib e ria n
G re e k
W Eur
W Eur
W Eur

8. Gross/net differences (LDCs)
-1.4 -1.2 -1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6
C a rib b e a n
C a rib b e a n
C a rib b e a n
C a rib b e a n
S - S A fric a n
S - S A fric a n
S - S A fric a n
S - S A fric a n
F ilip in o
C h ile a n
S A m e ric a n
M e xic a n
Gross
P u e rto R ic a n Net
N A fric a n
N A fric a n
N A fric a n
N A fric a n
N A fric a n
T u rk is h
T u rk is h
T u rk is h
T u rk is h
T u rk is h

9. Explaining these differences: degree of
selectivity
‘Positive selection’ and ‘immigrant optimism’:
migrants, especially those from poorer, more
distant countries, tend to be much more
ambitious and resourceful (and better educated)
than non-migrants remaining in those countries.
East Asians are highly ‘positively selected’.
Some labour migrants from easily accessed nearby
countries are ‘neutrally selected’
Very few groups are ‘negatively selected’

10. Explaining the differences: language
barriers
• Lack of fluency in the destination country
language is the biggest barrier to success in
the educational system or labour market
• ‘Early arrivals’ who arrived during primary
schooling catch up, but ‘late arrivals’ suffer a
substantial penalty (equivalent to one year of
schooling)
• Major implications for future educational and
labour market careers

11. Explaining the differences: school
effects
• Mixed evidence as to whether ethnically
diverse schools have better or worse results.
• Compelling evidence that socio-economically
deprived schools, which young migrants
typically attend, hold their students back
• Suggestive evidence that educational systems
with early selection and tracking make it more
difficult for young migrants to catch up

12. Young migrants in the labour market:
the problem of foreign qualifications
• While the 1.5 generation will typically have
domestic qualifications, the 1st generation
(arrived as adults) will typically have foreign
qualifications
• Substantial evidence that foreign
qualifications yield lower ‘returns’ – ie young
migrants with foreign degrees often have to
accept non-degree level work

13. Young migrants in the labour market:
the problem of discrimination
• Field studies – matched C.V.s but different
(majority/minority group) names sent to
employers. Rates of positive responses by
employers compared (ILO methodology).
• Recent field studies in Britain, Sweden,
Switzerland (and earlier studies in other
European countries) all show net
discrimination against applicants with
recognizably minority names.

14. Young migrants in the labour market –
bridging and bonding social capital
• Bonding social capital brings many socio-
emotional benefits,
• But growing evidence (from Netherlands and
Germany) that bridging social capital helps
migrants advance in the labour market
• Provides access to the networks (and
information) of the majority group – especially
important for finding out about job
opportunities

15. A special case – asylum seekers
• Often not allowed to work while application is
being considered – hence additional burden of
lack of training and work experience if they
are granted leave to remain

16. Policy challenges
• Importance of teaching the destination-
country language
• The problems faced by ‘late arrivals’
• The problems faced by young people with
foreign qualifications
• The problems faced by visible minorities from
discrimination
• The problems faced by lack of bridging social
contacts/information

17. Policy responses
Provide free, intensive language teaching,
especially for late arrivals and adult arrivals
Provide ‘second chance’ upper secondary/tertiary
education for young migrants who have needed
to catch up
Provide ‘second chance’ access to vocational
training for those with foreign qualifications
Enforce existing anti-discrimination legislation more
vigorously
Provide facilities, eg youth and sports clubs, that
might facilitate bridging.

18. But also remember
• The drive and motivation of young migrants
brings great opportunities to the receiving
countries. Giving full scope to this drive and
motivation will benefit us all.
• Greater flexibility in adapting our institutional
arrangements to the needs of young migrants
will often be all that is needed