2. 2
Contents
A brief History of Photography 3
Camera Basics: Pinhole Photography 4
The Path of Light 5
Single Lens Reflex Cameras (SLR) 6
Aperture, Shutter and Viewfinder 7
Standard Lenses 8
Focal Length and Angle of View 10
Camera Formats and Film Types 11
The Composition of Black and White Film 12
How to Take a Photograph 13
Setting the Correct Exposure 14
What is an Internal Light Meter? 15
What is Aperture 16
What is Speed? 17
Visual Effects with
Depth of Field 18
Lighting 19
Composition and Viewpoint 21
Camera Summary 23
Processing Film 24
Loading Film 25
Health and Safety 26
Processing Film 27
The Contact Sheet 29
Printing an Enlargement 33
Producing Good Prints 35
Improving and Adjusting Print Quality 36
Adjusting the Aperture Ring 37
Filters 38
Advanced Techniques: Cropping 39
Advanced Techniques: Dodging and Burning 40
3. 3
A Brief History of Photography
Since the beginning of human existence, people have wanted to record their
activities through art. Photography, or ‘drawing with light’ is a modern
process that fulfils our need. It provides a form of mechanical recording,
independent of the individual’s ability to draw accurately. It also provides a
method of producing any number of copies.
Photography took a long time to develop to the level of sophistication it has
achieved today. The first photograph is thought to have been taken by a
Frenchman named Nicephore Niepce in 1827.
Later in 1839, Englishman William Henry Fox Talbot
(right) produced a negative image on writing paper
coated with silver salts.
He used silver salts because they are sensitive to light.
Cameras with lenses and plates sensitive to light have been used since the
middle of the last century. Photographs were taken of the Crimean War in
1855 and of the American Civil War in the 1860’s.
What really revolutionised photography was the
development of modern film (or dry film) by American
George Eastman (left).
In 1900 he launched the Brownie camera, which made
photography cheap, easy,
and available to all.
Photography really took off with the discovery of a practical light-sensitive
chemical for recording the image formed inside the camera.
This chemical is the metal silver. ‘Silver halides’ are compound salts of silver
like silver bromide, silver iodide and silver chloride, and will breakdown under
exposure to light to form tiny grains of black.
4. 4
Camera Basics:
Pinhole Photography
If you were to strip away the mechanical refinements
and features of any camera you would find the same
basic design and principle. The most basic camera
would be a light tight box with a pinhole in its side.
When light (reflected from a subject) passes through
the pinhole an image is projected on the opposite
wall of the light tight box.
The pinhole principle was thought to have been discovered around the fifth
century BC by the Chinese Philosopher Mo Ti, although only became a
camera with the invention of light sensitive materials around two thousand
years later.
With modern cameras light is controlled using a lens (to streamline the flow)
and aperture size to control how long it hits the negative/digital-sensor for.
This control allows for accurate exposures to be made and photographs to be
taken in a variety of conditions from bright sunlight to night time.
5. 5
The Path of Light
The following table illustrates how light is controlled from subject through to
negative/digital-sensor.
This is modern photography in its simplest universal form.
Subject and light source
A light source to illuminate a subject is essential.
Light rays reflected from the subject are transmitted
through the camera to form a latent image
on the film.
Lens
A simple lens consists of a convex disk of ground
and polished glass that refracts the widening light
rays travelling away from every point of the subject,
so that they converge to form coherent points. The
point at which the lens focuses these rays – the focal
plane – coincides with the position of the film when
the lens is correctly focused.
Focal plane
This is where the rays of light refracted by the lens
converge to form a sharp, upside-down image. Light
traveling from different distances from the camera
needs varying degrees of refraction to focus at the
focal plane, so a focusing mechanism moves the
lens toward or away from the back of the camera.
The position of the film and focal plane coincides
when the lens is correctly focused.
6. 6
Single Lens Reflex Cameras (SLR)
SLR cameras are the industry standard and are used by amateurs and
professionals alike. They allow accurate exposures to be made quickly and a
wide degree of control over how you take your picture. They are superior over
compact cameras (such as mobile phones) in all but their size.
Manual SLR
You have complete control over this type of
camera. You must focus and select the
correct exposure yourself. This type of
camera forces the user to think very
carefully about what they are doing.
Automatic SLR
This type of camera is the electronic
version of the above and offers automatic
functions to aid the picture taking process.
The camera itself can control the focusing
and exposure.
Digital SLR
The most recent development in
photography has greatly changed how
pictures are taken. Dependant on the user,
advanced functions enable better pictures
to be taken. There is no film involved so the
process of subject to print is much faster.
7. 7
Aperture,
Shutter and Viewfinder
Aperture
Turning the aperture ring can
change the diameter of the
lens diaphragm. This
dictates the brightness of the
image reaching the film.
Moving to the next f-number
either halves or doubles
aperture size. Aperture size
also affects depth of field.
Shutter
The shutter can be set at
different speeds, which
determine the length of time
the film is exposed. Moving
the shutter speed dial to the
next stop either doubles or
halves exposure time.
View finder
Direct vision viewfinders
(TLR) on compact cameras
do not show exactly the
same image the lens sees.
With an SLR, what you see
is what your get as light is
reflected via a mirror through
the viewfinder window.
8. 8
Standard Camera Lenses
Camera lenses can be broken down into three broad groups:
Wide-angle, standard (normal), and long-focus (telephoto).
Standard Lens
A standard, or normal, lens
produces an image that is roughly
equivalent to the way a scene
appears when viewed with the
naked eye. Most 35mm SLRs
come with a standard lens, but
this can be swapped for a shorter
or longer lens. Standard lenses
often have wide maximum
apertures, making them useful in
low-light situations.
Wide-Angle Lens
A wide-angle lens takes in a larger
angle of view than a standard lens
and is ideal for photographing a
group of people or when you are
working in confined space. If used
too close to a subject, however,
distortion may be a problem.
Depth of field at each aperture
setting is generous, which is
useful when all parts of a subject
must be sharply rendered.
9. 9
Zoom Lens
A zoom lens allows you to fine-
tune subject framing by adjusting
the focal length of the lens. Each
zoom lens covers a range of three
or four fixed focal length lenses,
giving you great flexibility at a
reasonable cost. Since you do not
have to think about changing
lenses, there is less chance you
will miss an important shot.
Long-Focus Lens
Long-focus lenses are useful
for large images of distant
subjects or when you cannot
move close enough to use a
shorter lens. Long lenses
tend to be heavy, which
makes the use of fast shutter
speeds to avoid camera
shake more important than
with lighter, shorter lenses. A
telephoto lens is a long-focus
lens with a compact design
that makes it shorter.
10. 10
Focal Length
and Angle of View
The illustration and sequence of photographs below, which are all taken from
the same viewpoint, show that as camera lens focal length increases so the
angle of view decreases.
Fisheye
6-8mm are known
as fisheyes. They
record a circular
image of at least
180o
, with some
lenses even looking
behind the camera.
Wide-angle
18-35mm have
more general
applications than
fisheye lenses.
Angles of view are
generous and
depth of field at all
apertures
Standard
50mm is fitted on
most SLRs. Useful
for most types of
subject, it often has
a wide maximum
aperture, making it
good in low light.
Long-focus
80-300mm
making a
long lens
ideal for
distant
subjects or
detailed
close-ups
Extreme
400-
1200mm
has a
shallow
depth of
field and a
small
maximum
aperture
and
requires
long
exposure
time even
in good
light.
11. 11
Camera Format and Film Types
There are many different camera formats from 35mm through to larger 5x4
inch negatives. The film camera you will be using throughout you’re a-level
study will take 35mm negative film which is widely available from good
camera stores (and our college shop).
35mm film is rated from 50 up to 3200 ISO; the choice of film you use is
dependant on the conditions you are photographing in.
SLOW: Low numbered ISO (50-100)
Very slow reaction to light. Use in bright conditions. An exceptionally small
grain means fine detail will be achieved in the negatives. Useful for static
subject matter like still life. May require slow shutter speeds and wide
aperture settings.
MEDIUM: Approx ISO (100-200)
Used for a wide range of subjects and lighting conditions.
Good compromise between light sensitivity and graininess of the image.
FAST: High numbered ISO (400-3200)
Quick reaction to light. Good for poor light conditions. Very fast films suitable
for evening/night-time work. Ideal for action shots. Large grains create a
more textured, grainy image.
BEWARE!
Do not use C41 process black and white film as
it cannot be used in the darkroom.
12. 12
The Composition
of Black and White Film
Black and white
negative
Black and white print
The image tones on a
black and white
negative appear
reserved, with light
areas corresponding to
dark areas of the
subject and dark areas
of the negative
corresponding to light
areas of the subject.
Gelatine protective layer (protects
against scratches and smears)
Photo-sensitive emulsion (crystals
of silver halide in gelatine)
Foundation layers of cellulose
and gelatine
Thick gelatine anti-curl layer
(helps stop film curling) with anti-
halation dye (helps stop halos
around points of light)
Transparent celluloid base
13. 13
How to take a photograph
If you follow these simple steps each time you take a photograph then
you will instill good practice into your image making:
STEP 1: Choose a subject
STEP 2: Compose your picture through the viewfinder
STEP 3: Read your light meter
STEP 4: Set your camera’s aperture and speed so the light
meter reading is balanced (this will give you a correct
exposure)
STEP 5: Focus your camera on the most important area of the
subject/scene
STEP 6: Recompose and shoot
* * REMEMBER * *
APERTURE & SHUTTER SPEED = EXPOSURE
THIS MUST BE SET CORRECTLY EVERY IMAGE YOU MAKE
14. 14
Setting the correct exposure
In order to create a well-balanced exposure on your negative/digital sensor
you need to think very carefully about the amount of light passing through
your camera’s lens. There are two elements which control the exposure –
aperture and speed; each working in harmony with the other.
In the diagram above this inseparable relationship between aperture (top line
of diagram) and speed (bottom line of diagram) is illustrated. When the
aperture setting is changed, the speed setting will also change to
compensate.
15. 15
What is an Internal Light Meter?
To record an image accurately your negative/digital sensor must receive the
correct quantity of light to make an exposure. The naked eye cannot measure
brightness reliably so some form of light measuring meter is vital to the
picture taking process.
The meter reads the light being emitted by the subject and a reading is shown
in the viewfinder.
This is an example of what you may see in
a camera with a needle meter reading. You
change the aperture and speed in order to
line up the two needles on the right of the
viewfinder.
This is an example of what you may see in
a camera with an electronic meter reading.
Generally you change the aperture and
speed settings to balance a glowing LED
between + and – in the camera viewfinder.
Make sure that your camera batteries are checked regularly.
Also make sure that your camera is set for the appropriate speed of film that
you are using.
16. 16
What is Aperture?
This is the size of the ‘hole’ through which light passes to the film and it
controls image brightness. The aperture consists of a series of overlapping
leaves that form an opening.
Aperture settings are referred to as f-stops and these are derived from the
ratio of the aperture to the focal length of the lens.
f-stops are often engraved on the lens mount as follows:
f,2. f,2.8. f,4. f,5.6. f,8. f,11. f,16. f,22.
The SMALLER the number, the LARGER the opening of light!
The BIGGER the number, the SMALLER the opening of light!
When photographing a
subject that is dimly lit you
would use a wide aperture
(f,2).
If the subject were bright you would use a small aperture (f,16)
The aperture numbers double or halve the
amount of light entering the camera.
17. 17
What is Speed?
Before you press the shutter the aperture remains closed.
When you press the shutter the aperture will open to the f-stop you have
chosen (e.g. f.22) and then close. The speed at which this happens is set on
your camera using the speed dial.
The shutter speeds are recorded as fractions of a second
1 / 2 is a slow shutter speed
1 / 250 is a fast shutter speed
Most shutter speeds range from B setting to 1/1000 of a
second. B setting means that the shutter will be open for
as long as you have your finger on the button.
Shutter speed alters dramatically the way a moving
subject is captured on film. By using faster shutter speeds such as 1/250 it is
possible to ‘freeze action’ and in contrast by using a slow speed such as 1/60,
action is blurred (see images below).
As a general rule, shutter speeds below 1/60th
cannot be hand-held and
require a tripod or similar support to avoid ‘camera shake’.
18. 18
Visual effects with Aperture
Depth of field
The following rules generally apply:
f.2 large aperture = shallow depth of field
f.22 small aperture = deeper depth of field
f.11 medium aperture = a balance between the two
Depth of field increases when the
aperture is stopped down.
Depth of field decreases when opened up
Depth of Field is concerned with the
nearest and furthest
parts of the subject which can be
rendered sharp at
a given focusing setting.
19. 19
Visual effects with Lighting
Become aware when choosing your subject matter of where light is coming
from. Be sensitive to the direction and quality of light falling on the
subject/object. Is the light coming from the front, side, back, or is it all-over
light?
Front Light
This casts a shadow behind the subject. This is a harsh
and unflattering light that doesn’t show any shadows and
little texture or surface detail. In a portrait, for instance,
the face may appear flat and washed out.
Side Light
This casts a shadow on the opposite side. One side of
the portrait will be lit, the other in shadow. This kind of
light gives a strong sense of volume and texture. In a
portrait the face will appear more 3D and detailed.
Back Light
The light source is behind the subject and casts a shadow in
front of it. The foreground of the subject will have very little
detail and will be mostly in shadow.
20. 20
Silhouette
When the source of light behind the subject
is strong, the subject will appear in
silhouette.
Revealing/All-Over Light
Typical of an overcast day or fluorescent lighting, this is broad, diffused light.
There is no apparent direction or distinguishable source of light. The entire
subject is softened and the sense of volume, texture and detail is subdued.
21. 21
Visual effects with
Composition and Viewpoint
Look carefully at your subject matter and analyse what you can see through
the viewfinder. What caught your attention in the first place?
When you know why you want to take a picture, you can analyse the
elements in the subject and decide the best way to portray them. With the
35mm SLR camera, what you see through the viewfinder is exactly what
you’ll get in the final print.
Choose Your Viewpoint
One of the easiest ways to improve your picture is to make a habit of moving
around the subject to find the best camera position. This involves looking
through the viewfinder as if it was an extension of your eye, moving and
changing your relationship to the subject.
Explore being above and below your subject, adjacent to your subject, close
to and far from your subject.
Notice everything that is within the four edges of the viewfinder – is there
anything there that you don’t want? If so, change your viewpoint.
22. 22
Choose Your Format
You can choose to hold your camera horizontal or vertical.
Choose Your Focal Point
Decide upon the main point of
interest in the picture. It should
occupy a strong place within the
frame.
Experiment with placing the
main focal point to one side or
corner of the frame rather than
the middle.
23. 23
Camera Summary
Choose the right film for the job / conditions
you are working with
Look through your viewfinder carefully,
think and explore composition
Notice the light source – is it creating
the effect you want?
Check focus
Check Composition
Press shutter button
Set aperture or shutter speed according to your light
meter. Several combinations will give you the same
exposure value, so experiment
24. 24
Processing Film
Equipment Needed:
Scissors
Film opener
Reel
Tank
Column
Funnel
Lid
Make sure that you have all the above before you go into the blackout
cupboard.
Make sure that all the equipment is DRY.
If you get into difficulties, put everything into the tank,
then come out and get help.
NB: Putting the film on the reel and into the tank must
be done in complete darkness. Failure to do so will
result in your film being exposed to light and therefore
being ruined.
Loading Film
25. 25
Getting your film from the
camera into a processing tank!
Collect all the equipment that
you will need. Ensure that all the
pieces are dry. Go to the
blackout booth. Put your
equipment in sequential order if
you find this helpful
1. Put the two halves of the reel
together and lock them in position
2. Turn out the light. In complete
darkness, open the film cassette
using an opener. Carefully cut the
film leader square. Push the film
onto the outer groove of the reel
3. Rotate the reel halves back and
forth until you have cranked the
whole film on to the reel
4. Carefully cut the end of the film from
the empty cassette
5. Put the column into the middle of the reel. Put the reel and column into
the tank. Place the funnel into the tank. Put the lid on the tank.
CHECK THE FUNNEL AND LID ARE SECURE
26. 26
HEALTH AND SAFETY
Handle chemicals with care
Developer contains Hydroquinone and Diethanolamine
Stop contains Acetic Acid
Fixer contains Acetic Acid
Wash off chemicals with water if in contact with skin
Seek help if chemicals get into your eyes or you have trouble breathing
Follow instructions carefully
(on the wall in the darkroom)
NO EATING OR DRINKING IN THE DARKROOM
27. 27
Processing Film
1. Developer
Consult the chart in the darkroom to find out how long your film
requires developing e.g. HP5 = 6 minutes
Pour developer into the tank until it appears at the base of the
funnel
Develop film for the time indicated on the chart
Gently agitate the film for 10 seconds every minute
After agitating, gently tap the tank to dislodge any air bubbles
After development time is complete, pour the developer back into
the bottle
2. Stop
Pour Stop/water into the tank until it appears at the
base of the funnel
Stop/wash all films for 2 minutes
Gently agitate the film for the entire 2 minutes
Pour the Stop/water back into the bottle
3. Fix
Pour Fix into the tank until it appears at the base of the funnel
Fix all films for 5 minutes (or more)
Gently agitate the film for 10 seconds every minute
Pour the Fix back into the bottle
4. Washing
Remove the reel from the tank and place the reel with the film still
on it into the wash tank. Leave to wash for at least 10 minutes
Wash out the tank, column, funnel, lid and leave on the drying rack
5. Wetting Agent
Place the reel with the film still on it into the wetting agent
(softener) to soak for 30 seconds
Carefully remove the film from the reel
Wash the reel and put it on the drying rack
28. 28
6. Drying
Hang the film in the drying cabinet
Handle the film very carefully by the edges only
The film will take 10 – 15 minutes to dry. Collect your film as soon
as it is dry. If left for longer films can curl up and become damaged
7. Storage
Carefully cut your film into strips of 5 – 6 negatives
Store your negatives in A4 negative holders and always keep them
flat
8. Handling Negatives
Always handle negatives with extreme care as
they can be easily scratched
Negatives can be gently cleaned with metholated
spirit and a clean soft cloth, on the shiny side only
Use a light-box to examine the contents of your
negatives
29. 29
The Contact Sheet
A contact sheet is a piece of photographic paper displaying all your images in
exactly the same as their size as their negatives. The Contact sheet enables
you to quickly and easily view your 36 images and assess them.
The contact sheet is a very important part of your preparatory work for any
coursework.
Once you have printed your contact sheet, indicate on it which frames you
are choosing to print as enlargements.
The contact sheet demonstrates:
Your initial ideas
A variety of ideas
Different compositions
Lighting conditions
Different viewpoints and angles
Exposure values – shutter speeds/aperture settings
How creative you have been both with your subject
matter and how you use your camera
30. 30
Printing a Contact Sheet
A print is created when light is projected through a negative and onto light
sensitive paper.
Like your camera, the enlarger has an
adjustable aperture to control how much light
is used to create a print. The enlarger also has
a timer to control how long the light reaches
the paper. For every print you produce you first
need to find out the best exposure for your
negative. You do this by producing a test strip.
To Produce a Test Strip
You need: a strip of negatives
a strip of photographic paper
a contact board
a piece of card
1. Switch the enlarger on and move the enlarger head up until the light
projected covers the contact board.
2. Open the aperture on the enlarger fully and then set it 2 stops down.
Always use this setting as the starting point for all test strips.
Now put the red safety filter in.
3. Open the contact board. Place your strip of Photographic paper in the
contact board and lay your strip of negatives, shiny side up, on top of
the paper.
Close the glass panel down on top of your negatives and paper.
4. You need to find out how long to exposure your images.
Set the timer dial to 1 or 2 seconds.
Cover most of your test strip with a piece of card, leaving only a cm or
so showing.
Switch off the enlarger.
Remove the red safety filter.
Press the timer button and exposure the area for 1 or 2 seconds.
5. Move the card another cm along the test strip.
Press the timer button and expose the area for 1 or 2 seconds.
Keep doing this until you reach the end of the strip.
Count how many exposures you have done in total.
31. 31
6. Put the safety filter back in.
Switch the enlarger back on. With the safety filter back in place, you
can see what you’re doing without further exposing the paper.
Take the strip of paper out from the contact board.
7. Develop – 1 minute
Stop/wash – 2 minutes
Fix – 5 to 10 minutes
Wash – 10 minutes
You will notice that one end is light (even white) and the other end is
darker.
The light end is 1 or 2 second exposure and the dark end is the total of
exposures you did.
Observe your test strip and choose the best exposure time for your set
of negatives.
Take your time doing this. As you become more experienced so
reading your test strips will become easier.
Help!
1. What do you do when your test strip is too pale?
Increase the exposure time on your test strip – do 2 second blocks
instead of 1.
If your test strip continues to be pale you can open up the aperture on
the enlarger to increase the amount of light being used. Open it up fully
and do another test strip.
2. What do you do when your test strip is really dark?
Close the aperture down 1 or 2 stops to reduce the amount of light
being used. Do another test strip.
3. Sometimes a piece of photographic paper will come out completely
black. This can be due to a number of reasons. The most common
mistake when you first learn to print is to accidentally over-expose the
paper to light.
32. 32
To Develop the Contact Sheet
Having made your test strip you now know how long to expose your paper
for the full Contact Sheet.
Leave all the settings on the enlarger the same as for the test strip.
1. Make sure the red safety filter is in
Place a sheet of 10 x 8 photographic paper in the contact board and
carefully lay all your negative strips, shiny side up, on top of the paper.
Close the glass panel down.
2. Switch the enlarger off
Set the timer to the correct exposure time you have chosen from your
test strip.
Take the safety filter out.
Press the timer button to expose your paper to light.
3. Put the safety filter back in.
You can now turn the enlarger back on and see what you are doing
without further exposing the paper.
Take your paper out from under the negatives.
4. Place the paper in: developer tray for 1 minute
Stop/wash tray for 2 minutes
fix tray for 5 – 10 minutes
wash bath for 10 minutes
Finally, put your print carefully through the dryer.
Wash your hands thoroughly
before
leaving the darkroom
33. 33
Printing an Enlargement
An enlargement is a print from one negative only.
Before you can do an enlargement, you must do a test strip to determine the
best exposure time.
Ensure that your negatives are carefully cleaned before each print.
Making a Test Strip
1. Carefully put a negative into the negative holder
on the enlarger. Raise or lower the enlarger until
you have the size of image desired (always allow
for a border)
2. Adjust the focus dial at the side of the enlarger.
Use the magnifier to accurately focus your image
– you should see grains.
Open the aperture fully and then set it 2 stops
down.
3. Put the red safety filter in.
Place your Photographic strip of paper within an
area of your picture that is going to be easy to
identify and has some detail within it.
4. Set the timer to 5 seconds
Cover most of the strip with a piece of card, leaving only 1 cm showing.
5. Switch off the enlarger. Remove the safety filter.
Press the timer button.
6. Keep moving the card along the strip, exposing the paper at 5 second
intervals.
7. Put the safety filter back in.
8. Take the test strip and develop, stop and fix it.
9. Take the strip out into daylight and observe results.
Select the best exposure time from your strip.
34. 34
Producing an Enlargement
Having worked out the best exposure time from your test strip you are ready
to produce the enlargement. If you are in any doubt about how long to
expose your print, seek advice and do another test strip.
1. Make sure red safety filter is in place
2. Place your photographic paper on the baseboard.
Grey or black sugar paper on the baseboard will
enable you to see the border between the image and
the edge of the paper. Take your time ensuring that
the image is straight on the paper and your border is
even.
3. Set the timer.
Switch off the enlarger.
Take out the red safety filter.
Press the timer button.
Put the safety filter back in.
4. Place your paper in: developer tray for 1 minute
stop tray for 2 minutes
fix tray for 5 – 10 minutes
Then place it in the wash bath for 10 minutes.
Finally, put it carefully through the dryer.
35. 35
Producing Good Prints
There are many factors involved if you want to produce good quality prints:
Make sure your negatives are clear and have a high level of
contrast. Can you clearly see areas of light and dark and
details in your negatives?
When negatives are grey and lacking clarity it will be difficult
to get good quality prints from them.
Similarly if your negatives come out very dark or very light,
you will also have difficulty producing good prints.
These are issues to do with exposure value when using your camera.
Check that you are using your camera properly. Also check that you
used the correct speed of film for the conditions when you took the
pictures.
When you got good contrast and detailed negatives you must treat them
with care.
Handle negatives as little as possible.
Failure to do so can result in scratches, dust, hairs and fingerprints on
your negatives and these will appear on your enlargement print.
Store your negatives in holders in a ring binder. Label each set of
negatives with the project title. After each set of negatives store your
corresponding contact sheet. Very quickly you will build up your own
library of negatives.
You can ‘clean’ negatives to remove dust and hairs by
gently wiping the negative with a soft cloth soaked with
metholated spirit. There is a cloth and small bottle in
the darkroom. However, you cannot get rid of
scratches.
Printing cannot be rushed. Take your time and develop
each step properly. Be patient. Store your prints in A4
plastic sleeves to keep them clean.
36. 36
Improving and Adjusting
Print Quality
Once you have learnt the basics of producing a black and white enlargement
print, you can begin to manipulate and adjust the quality of the final image.
When using 10 x 8 paper, adjust the height of the enlarger head and
experiment with different widths of white border around your image.
To begin with you may wish to place your image in the middle of the paper.
Later, try experimenting with deliberately placing an image off-centre, high up
or low down.
If you want to produce a large print, move up to larger paper. You can print
on paper up to 12 x 16 on the college enlargers, but remember to allow for a
border.
When producing your final prints for a unit of coursework, aim for
consistency in terms of size of print and placement of the print. For a unit of
coursework your prints need to work together as a collection and look as if
they belong together.
Borders
A good quality black and white print needs to have a border around it.
This border counter-balances the detail of the print
and gives the print ‘breathing’ space.
This border will also give you options for window mounting your work.
37. 37
Adjusting the Aperture Ring
Whenever you go into the darkroom to begin printing set the aperture ring on
the enlarger to a common starting point: open the aperture fully (maximum
light) and then close it 2 stops down.
Always use this as a starting point.
Test Strip is Continuously Too Dark?
If your test strips are too dark, despite only exposing the paper for 1 or 2
seconds, you close the aperture down one stop (therefore decreasing the
amount of light being used) and do another test strip.
Test Strip is Continuously Too Light?
If your test strip is too light, despite exposing the paper for 10 or more
seconds, you open the aperture up (therefore increasing the amount of light
being used) and do another test strip.
Large aperture = more light = darker prints
Small aperture = less light = lighter prints
The more light used = the darker the print will be
The less light used = the lighter the print will be
38. 38
Filters
Filters are coloured glass, gelatine or plastic disks, which modify the light
passing through them, mainly in terms of colour/tone content. They can be
used both at the camera and printing stage to correct or alter the appearance
of the final photograph.
Next to each enlarger in the darkroom there is a box of filters ranging from 00
to filter 5.
These filters can be used to alter the amount of black, white and greys in
your print.
Filter 5 will produce an image that is predominantly pure black and white with
little or no greys. This produces a very dramatic and striking image but can
‘bleach out’ areas of detail.
Filter 00 will produce an image that is predominantly a wide range of greys,
with little or no pure black or white.
As you move up the range of filters from 00 to 5 so the ratio of black and
white to grey will increase.
Filter
0 1 2 3 4 5
One of the best ways to see the effect of the filters is to produce the same
print several times, but using a range of filters.
NB: Each time that you change a filter, you must do another test strip.
Black
Greys
White
39. 39
Advanced Techniques:
Cropping
In the darkroom, the composition of the original image on the
negative can be subtly changed; depending on how the picture is
cropped or which section of the negative is chosen for enlargement.
You can improve or change the composition of a picture simply
by selecting the best area for enlargement.
Some might argue that this is avoidable, if you had chosen your
composition more carefully in the first place!
The photographer, Henri Cartier-Bresson is famous for capturing
ideal compositions within split seconds (The Decisive Moment) and
rarely, if ever, cropping his negatives.
However, there is a place for cropped pictures and, done carefully,
you can produce very creative results.
Stencils can be used to create prints that are square or
unconventional in shape. Not every subject fits comfortably into the
traditional format of the 35mm negative. Tall subjects can be
cropped and trimmed to make a narrow print that emphasizes the
subject.
Stencils can also be used to print more than one image on a sheet of
paper, to overlap images and produce creative prints.
40. 40
Advanced Techniques:
Dodging and Burning
Until now, we have assumed that the test strip helps you to determine
the best exposure time for the whole print.
However, there are times when it is necessary to give different parts
of the picture very different exposures.
For example, landscapes often require different lengths of exposure
for foreground and background, particularly if there is a lot of sky in
the picture.
The test strip might indicate that the sky reproduces better with more
exposure than the foreground.
Another example might be a bright white wall that needs more
exposure than the background to bring out the detail in the brickwork.
This is when you start ‘dodging and burning’.
‘Dodging and burning-in’ are ways of controlling the tone of a
print, when different areas require different exposure times.
By holding a piece of card over some of the photographic paper, for
part of the exposure, you lighten the tone of that area.
To burn-in, you cover all of the paper partway through, except for the
bit that you want to darken.
Some people use their hands to dodge or burn-in an area of a print.
Some people use a piece of card to make shadows over the paper
and reduce exposure time for that area.
Whatever technique you use, be sure to keep the shade or your hand
moving slightly, to avoid abrupt changes in tone.
