The document discusses conic sections, which are curves formed by the intersection of a cone with a plane. There are four types of conic sections: circles, ellipses, parabolas, and hyperbolas. The document provides equations to define each conic section and explains how the eccentricity relates the distance from a point on the curve to the focus and its perpendicular distance to the directrix. It also presents methods to derive the equations of conic sections in both polar and rectangular coordinate systems with the origin at either the focus or directrix.

1. Paths of planets, satellites and comets are
beautiful curves called conic sections. They
are obtained when a cone is intersected by a
plane surface.
And also they have many other
beautiful and interesting facts about them.
For example they are such curves that
distance from any point on the curve from a
fixed point bears a constant ratio to distance
from a fixed st line.

2. A cone cut by a plane
a)Perpendicular to its
Different
axis of the cone gives
Sections Of
a circle, if not
A Double
through its vertex;
Cone
through the vertex
only a point is got.
b) In an angle with
the axis, gives an
ellipse.
c) Parallel to its slant
height or generator
gives a parabola.
d) Parallel to its
axis, gives two
branches of a
Fig 1a Fig1b Fig 1c Fig 1d
hyperbola.
circle ellipse parabola hyperbola
Fig 1 : Conic sections. a) plane section perpendicular to axis of cone – circle, if it is through the vertex , a
e) Through the
point.
b) plane section with an angle with a plane perpendicular to axis
axis, gives two
any of the generators – ellipse.
of cone and not parallel to
c) plane section parallel to a generator of the cone – parabola .
straight lines.
d) plane section parallel to axis of cone not through it – hyperbola,
if through the axis of the cone – two straight lines.

3. We know the axis of earth always
The pole star
ORBIT OF points towards the pole star. In fact
that is the reason of changing seasons.
THE EARTH
If every point of the orbit is joined to
the pole star, we get a cone ; not an odd
shaped one, but a round smooth one
called a right circular cone.
Again the Sun is not placed at its
center; but a t point called its focus, far
away from the center.
Planets and satellites move in elliptical
orbits
Comets who are seen periodically
move around the Sun in vey long
elliptical orbits.
The Earth
Some travelling comets at high speed
are not captured by the Sun, they just
bend around it once and pass away in
parabolic orbits.
Still some comets are in so high speed
that they are deflected back from the
Sun and turn away in hyperbolic
orbits. This is some sort of collision.
The Sun

4. Conic sections are
THE ‘ECCENTRICITY’ OF A CONIC SECTION
curves such that ratio
of distance from any
point on it from a
fixed point, called
focus, bears a
constant ratio ‘e’ or
eccentricity to its
distance from a fixed
straight line, called
The Circle and the ellipse are bound orbits. The moon’s
directrix. The
orbit is almost circular orbit. Orbit of the earth is
elliptical. Bodies with total energy negative are captured curve is a circle if
and move in bound orbits. This means potential energy of
e = 0, ellipse if e <
attraction exceeds kinetic energy which is always
positive. Parabola is the orbit of a planet or comet
1, parabola if e =
critically captured; it takes a turn and escapes the other
way, in ‘escape velocity’ corresponding to zero total
1, hyperbola if e >
energy of the escaping body. The body possesses total
1, and two st lines if
energy positive, i.e., it is in high velocity, outweighing
attractive forces, it is deflected in hyperbolic orbit. This is
e = ∞.
some sort of collision, nay collision broader sense.

5. Equation of an ellipse
Y
2 2
x y
1
2 2
a a
P
a
Q (x y)
O
X’ X
M b R N
2
2
y
x
1 2
2
2 2 y
x
a b 1
2 2
Y’ b b
2 2
Let the eqn. of the circle be written in form ……………………………………..………….(a)
X Y
1
2 2
a a
Transform the coordinates to x and y ,only by compressing Y coordinates by a factor b/a
where b/a < 1;i.e.,x = X, and y = b .Y/a ; OR X = x and Y = a .y/b.………………………………….(b)
The curve PMN is now changed to the curve QMN because of the transformation of coordinates
to new coordinates x and y. A relationship between x and y shall be its equation. Since x and y are
related to X and Y as in (b) and X and Y are related to each other as in (a), we can rewrite (a) as,
2
2
ay 2 2
x y
2
x 2
b 1
1 2 2
a b
2 2
a a
which is the only one relationship between x and y we sought for, and becomes the eqn. of the
new curve ( called ellipse).

6. A meaning Of eccentricity ‘e’
The circle has a centre and the ellipse has also a centre. But
the centre of the ellipse is not that important as the centre of
the circle. The ellipse has no such radial symmetry as in the
case of circle. Instead, there are two other points of importance
along the main axis or the major axis , one on each side of the
center , each being called a focus. How far the focus is moved
from the center so that the circle is flattened to become an
ellipse is measured by its eccentricity. We explore below how
the focus and eccentricity are related .
In the eqn.of the ellipse , put b = fa or b/a = f, (evidently f <
1, as b < a). This reduces the eqn tox2f2 + y2 =
a2f2…………….(a)
The left side looks like square of a distance (as we
knew distance formula between the points (x, y) and (x1, y1), d
=√{(x- x1) 2+ (y- y1) 2} and the form of the equation indicates us
to make the expression a complete square so as to see what
distance it might be. Put e2 = 1 – f2 (certainly we can, as f < 1)
so that x2f2 becomes
x2 (1 – e2 ), and a2f2 becomes a2 (1 – e2 ), Thus the eqn.
becomes
x2 + a2e2 + y2 = a2 + e2x2
In further endeavour to complete squares, we add – 2aex to
both sides and get (x – ae)2 + (y – 0)2 = e2(x – a/e)2………..(b)

7. Spokes of a wheel being pulled by two
Visualisation of e rods called directrices; the center splits
into two points moved away from each
other called foci.

8. The sum of focal distances from any point on the
ellipse = 2a, the major axis.
Choose the origin midway between the
two fixed points and choose the x-axis
along the line joining the two fixed
points. There is no loss of generality as
we can shift the origin and the axes later
as we please. Thus the coordinates of
the two fixed points may be taken as
(k, 0) and ( - k, 0) ; or as (ae, 0) and
( - ae, 0) if we denote k /a = e. Later on
we would observe that this is really the
eccentricity e. If (x, y) be the
coordinates of the point , the sum of
whose distances from (ae, 0) and
( - ae, 0) is 2a; we have, the steps are:
( x ae ), y
2 2 2 2
( x ae ) y 2a
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2x 2a e 2y 2 (x ae ) y (x ae ) y 4a
2
2 2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
x ae y 2a x ae y 4x a e
2 2 2 2
x y x y
1 1
2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
a a (1 e) a b
a xe x ae y

9. Equation of any conic section in Z Y P(x, y)
D
polar coordinates (origin at focus). R
L
S
We would derive the equations of all conic sections in a uniform manner from the fact r
that the eccentricity e of the conic is the ratio of distance of any point on it from the focus
to the length of perpendicular drawn from the point on the directrix. A chord through X’ E V F(0,0) Q X
the focus parallel to the directrix is called latus rectum , LM in the figure and let its
length be 2l. In the figure, let P be any point (x, y) or (r, ) in polar coordinates,(OX M
being called the ‘initial line’ and , measured from this line anticlockwise being called
D’ Z’ Y’
‘vectorial angle’ and r being called the ‘radius vector’).As such r/PD = e shall be our
equation for all conic sections. Now, as L is a point on the conic, and LS = EF, and e =LF / Fig.12a : general conic
EF = e. So that we have, EF = l/e. Draw ZZ’ a line through the vertex V of the section in polar coordinates
conic, meeting PD at R.
Now r/PD = e, or r = e.PD = e(PR + RD) = e(QF + FE)= e(r cos + l/e) = er cos + l
Or, r = er cos + l , or, r - er cos = l, or, r(1 - e cos ) = l, or,
r = l/(1 - e cos ) …………………………..Eqn.(1)
which is the equation of a parabola for e = 1, ellipse for e < 1, hyperbola for e > 1. The
circle is a special case of ellipse where e = 0 and two straight lines ,a special case
of hyperbola where e = .This would be evident by and by in later sections.
If the curve is drawn to the left of the origin and the axes of coordinates x, y or r, are
taken as usual , the eqn.(1) becomes
r = l/(1 + e cos ) ………………………….. Eqn.(1a)
(observe that cos( - ) = - cos ),
The curve is seen to be symmetrical about the x- axis as cos = cos ( - ), so that could
be replaced by - .
The semi-latus rectum l serves as a parameter for the conic section to describe the
relationship between r and . The necessity of a parameter in addition to position of
focus is actually to fix the position of the directrix as will be evident in the next
paragraph. The directrix line could not have been fixed if only position of focus and
eccentricity were given.
If the initial line XX’ is not the axis, and if the axis of the conic is inclined at
an angle to it, then the geometry would be same if is replaced by (verify). So eqn.
becomes l
1 e co s ......................................... E q n (2 )
r

10. Conic section in rectangular coordinates: (origin at directrix)
In rectangular coordinates, (see fig.12a ) , taking the directrix, DD’ as
the y-axis, and taking the distance of the focus at a distance p from
it, i.e., EF = p, and PD = EQ =x, we have,
PF2 /PD2 = e2 , PF2 = PD2e2 = e2x2, PF2 = FQ2 + PQ2 =
(EQ – EF)2 + PQ2 =(x – p )2 + y2,
(x – p )2 + y2 = e2x2, p being called the focal parameter, being
Or,
the distance from the focus to the directrix.
Z P(x, y)
x2(1 – e2) + y2 – 2px +p2 = 0……………………Eqn.(3). D R
Or,
L
As FL = eSL = eEF, where FL = l and EF = p, S
r
we have l = pe………………………………………………. Eqn.(4) X’ E V F(0,0) Q X
Semi-latus rectum = pe. M
D’ Z’
Fig.12a : general conic
section in polar coordinates

11. Conic section in rectangular coordinates: (origin at focus)
If the origin is shifted to (p, 0), the old
values of x should now be written X +
p in terms of new coordinates and y =
Y. So eqn. (2) becomes,
(X + p)2(1 – e2) + Y2 – 2p(X + p) +p2 = 0 Z P(x, y)
D
or,X2(1 – e2) +2pX(1 – e2) + p2(1 – e2) + R
L
S
Y2 – 2pX - 2p2 +p2 = 0 r
X’ E V F(0,0) Q X
or,,X2(1 – e2) + Y2 - 2e2pX – e2p2 = 0 M
We can safely use x and y and forget D’ Z’
Fig.12a : general conic
about X and Y and write it as section in polar coordinates
x2(1 – e2) + y2 - 2e2px – e2p2 =0Eqn(5)

12. Conic section in rectangular coordinates: (origin at any point in general)
…………………………………………………… eqn(6)
2
( Ax By C)
2 2 2
( x - h) (y k) e 2 2
A B
Is the equation of general conic section including circle, ellipse, parabola and
hyperbola according as
e = 0, e < 1, e =1, and e > 1. Focus is the point (h, k) and directrix is the st. line . The
cases would be clear in the appropriate sections.
Let the point V be the vertex at the origin (0, 0) and let the directrix DD’ be at a
distance a , i.e., at the point G ( - a, 0). If the focus is at F, VF/VG = e, as VG = a,
VF must be ae, so that F is at (ae, 0). If P(x, y) be any point on the conic, PF/PD =
e, If PD cuts y-axis at R, or, PF/(PR +RD) = e, or, PF/(PR +VG) = e, or, PF/(VQ +VG)
= e, or, r/(x + a) = e,
From here we can go to r/(r cos + a ) = e, ………………………………eqn.(7)
Or, ……………………………………………………………...eqn.(8)
2 2
x y /(x + a) = e
so , or …………………………………………………………………………..eqn(9)
2 2 2 2
x y =e (x + a)
Or ………………………………………………………………eqn(10)
2 2 2 2 2
x (1 e ) 2 aex e a y =0
This ‘a’ must not be confused with semi major axis of the ellipse.
Here it is the distance of the directrix from the vertex. Now l = LF =
eSL = e(FV + VG) = e(ae +a);so a e l a e …………………………..eqn(11)

13. Derivation of Eqn of Ellipse in Cartesian Coordinates
The eqn. for general conic x2(1 – e2) + y2 – 2px +p2 = 0 becomes,
x2(1 – e2) + y2 – 2 (a/e – ae )x +(a/e – ae)2 = 0 .
which is the equation of the ellipse. with origin
at the directrix and focus at (a/e – ae,0).
For, we already know that distance of the directrix of ellipse from its center is a/e , and
distance of the focus from the center is ae. So p = a/e – ae.
Only we have to shift the origin a/e to the right, i.e., replace x by x+ a/e
So the eqn. taking origin at the centre of ellipse this eqn becomes,
(x+ a/e)2(1 – e2) + y2 – 2 (a/e – ae )( x+ a/e) +(a/e – ae)2 = 0
or, x2(1–e2)+y2 –2(a/e–ae)(x +a/e)+(a/e–ae)2+2x(a/e)(1– e2)+(a/e)2(1–e2) = 0
or, x2(1–e2)+y2 –2(a/e–ae)x–2(a/e–ae) a/e+(a/e–ae)2+
2x(a/e– ae)+ (a/e)2(1–e2) = 0
or, x2(1–e2)+y2 – 2(a/e)2(1 – e2) +(a/e–ae)2 +(a/e)2(1–e2) = 0
or, x2(1–e2)+y2– (a/e)2(1 – e2) +(a/e–ae)2 = 0 ,
or, x2(1–e2)+y2– (a/e)2(1 – e2) +(a/e)2(1-e2)2 = 0
or, x2(1–e2)+y2 - (a/e)2(1–e2) + (a/e)2(1-2e2 +e4) = 0
or, x2(1–e2)+y2 - (a/e)2(1–e2 - 1+ 2e2 - e4) = 0
or, x2(1–e2)+y2 - (a/e)2e2(1 –e2) = 0 , or, x2(1–e2)+y2 – a2(1 –e2) = 0
or, , as before; or where as before.
2 2
x y 2 2 2
b a 1 e
1
2 2 2
a a 1 e

14. Z P(x, y)
D
Equation of parabola R
L
S
r
This is an example of how we derive equations of conic X’ E V(0, 0) F Q X
section from focus directrix definition from the first M
principles. D’ Z’
In the above figure and with the labels as before, A parabola Fig.12a : general conic
section in polar coordinates
is the curve such that any point on this curve, P(x, y) is at
the same distance from the focus F as the distance from the
directrix, PD. So PF = PD = QE.
Next, if V(0, 0) is a point on the parabola, called its
vertex, then , by above definition, VE = VF. Let us call VE =
a, so that F is the point (a,0). Now, PF2 = r2 = FQ2 +QP2 =
(x-a)2 +y2. Again PD2 = PR2 + RD2=(x+a) 2
Thus , or y2 = 4ax …………………………… ………..eqn(12)
It the origin is transferred to the point ( - a , 0), or it is
taken to the directrix, then x should be replaced by x – a
, so that the equation to the parabola becomes,
y2 = 4a(x – a)…………………………. eqn(13a)
It the origin is transferred to the point focus, ( a , 0), then x
should be replaced by
x + a , so that the equation to the parabola becomes,
2

15. Equation of rectangular hyperbola
YA
R
In the figure, APB be a curve where P(x, y) is any point on R P(x, y)
it such that OQ = x = RP and PQ = y = RO; and
B
xy = c2…………………..……………………..Eqn(14a) X’
O Q X
Such a curve is called a rectangular hyperbola A’
characterized by the feature that the product of its P’
distances from two fixed st.lines at right angles to each y= - x
R’
other , the coordinate axes in the present case is a positive B’ Y’
constant say c2. The curve has two branches APB and Fig.16, rectangular hyperbola
A’P’B’ in the first and third quadrants If we move further
to the right of any point P (x, y) the y- coordinate
decreases and the x- coordinate increases in the inverse
proportion so that xy remains constant. Down along the
x- axis, the y- coordinate diminishes to 0 at large distance
, so that the x- axis touches the curve at ∞. Similarly the
curve touches the y – axis at ∞. A line touching a curve at
∞ is called an asymptote of the curve. Further, the
branch A’P’B’ is reflection of the branch APB , not about
any axis, but about the line y = - x shown as a dotted line.
The fact may be verified by observing that the equation of
this curve is unchanged by replacing x, y by – x and – y
respectively. Further, it may be noted that the curve is
symmetric about the line y = x , for interchanging x and y
in the eqn makes no difference.

16. Equation of rectangular hyperbola YA
R
R P(x, y)
An analogy with the circle:
In an ellipse, the sum of distances of any point on it is B
constant and equal to its major axis. Similarly, on this curve, X’
O Q X
the rectangular hyperbola, product of distances from two A’
fixed st.lines is constant. ( its distance from y –axis being x P’
and the distance from x – axis being y). y= - x
R’
The curve can be transformed by a change of axes , the new B’ Y’
axes got from rotating the existing axes by 450 anticlockwise. Fig.16, rectangular hyperbola
The new set of axes, say X and Y form another rectangular
Cartesian coordinate system about the same origin. If new
coordinates of P be (X, Y) , we have, from principle of
transformation of coordinates,
x = X cos 450 – Y sin 450 and y = X sin 450 + Y cos450………….(b)
Putting the values in (a),
(X cos 450 – Y sin 450)( X sin 450 + Y cos 450) = c2
(X / 2 – Y / 2)( X / 2 + Y / 2) = c2
or,
X2 – Y2 = 2c2
or
X2 – Y2 = a2
or,
2 2
X Y
1
or, …………………..………………………….(14)
2 2
a a

17. Equation of hyperbola
Now the technique of compressing Y-
D2 Y D1 L
coordinate may be applied. Let all Y- P’
M P
coordinates be compressed in the ratio M’
b b
;so y’= a Y, and x’ = X. Thus the eqn.
a
F’ F
2 2
reduces to x' y'
1
X’ A’ N’ O N A Q X
2 2
a b
which may be re-written in usual form ,
for the only reason of sheer convenience
2 2
as, x y 1 ……………… Eqn.(15) Q’ D2’ D1’ Q
Y’ L’
2 2
a b
We also can arrive at the ratio of Fig. 17 : Hyperbola
focal distance to the directory
distance of a point just in the
manner we did for the ellipse.
which can be regarded as the standard
equation of a hyperbola. Just as the
eqn. of ellipse is derived from the eqn.
of a circle, the eqn. of hyperbola is
derived from eqn. of a rectangular
hyperbola in the same manner. Hence
the rectangular hyperbola may be
considered as a counterpart of a circle.

18. L’
Y X
N’ S’
TO SHOW THAT AN HYPERBOLA IS T’
ACTUALLY A SECTION OF A CONE
Let a st.line VU revolve around a fixed M’
st.line VG making a constant angle with a
it at V and generate a double cone as V C(0, 0)
b
shown in the figure. Let a plane parallel L
a
to VG and perpendicular to the plane of L
M
VUW cut the double cone in a curve in x
two branches LMN and L’M’N’ , M and x
P
M’ being two points on the cone. Let VC y
= b , be perpendicular to MM’. Set up a 900 Y’
S T
rectangular Cartesian coordinate r O b R
L
system at C , midpoint of M’M and MM’ U W
being the x-axis and YY’ being y-axis in N
the intersecting plane. Take any point P
on the curve of intersection and draw a X’
L
G
perpendicular PR onto MM’ and extend L
Fig. 18 : A hyperbola is really a section of a cone
it until it meets the curve at N.
Coordinates of the point P are x = CR
and y = PR. Take a plane containing PR
and perpendicular to the plane VST .
this plane intersects the cone in a circle
PST having its centre at O and radius
OP = OS = OT = r.

19. L’
Y X
N’ S’
L
TO SHOW THAT AN HYPERBOLA IS T’
ACTUALLY A SECTION OF A CONE
This can be proved from M’
a
congruence of the two triangles V C(0, 0)
b L
VSO and VOT, having the side a
L
M
VO common, and two equal x
angles SVO = = OVT and x
P
L
y
having a right angle each. OVCR 900 Y’
S T
r O b R
can be proved to be a rectangle U W
as three of its angles are right N
angles, so that OR = VC = b. X’
L
G
Now PR is in the intersecting L
Fig. 18 : A hyperbola is really a section of a cone
plane and OR is in the plane of
the circle PST and the two
planes are perpendicular to each
other. So OR PR and it follows
that OP2 = OR2 + PR2.
Or, r2 = b2 + y2…………………….(a)

20. Continued from the previous slide
As OP = r, OR = b and PR = y..
The relationship between x and y shall be the eqn. to the curve of
intersection we require, which can be obtained from this eqn.(a) r in terms
of x. We immediately observe that r = OS = OV tan and OV = CR = x.
x2tan2 = b2 + y2………………………………...(b)
Hence we get,
is the required equation to the curve of intersection. If we denote
the length CM = a, observe that CMV = MVO = , so that tan = b/a.
x2b2 = a 2b2 + a2y2 or,
Now eqn. (b) becomes,
…………….( c)
2 2
x y
1
2 2
a b
which is standard equation to a hyperbola . Note that ‘a’ is actually seen to
be its semi-major axis and ‘b’ is equal to its semi-minor axis, though it is not
in the plane of the curve. The value of e may be obtained from ,
…………………………………(d)
2
b
2 2 2
e 1 1 tan sec
2
a
which is always greater than 1 for any given acute angle . For a different
value of e we need a different value of , or in other words, need a different
cone altogether. From one cone, we get hyperbolas all of same e value
i.e., sec2 . This is because either we have to choose a different cone or
different values of a and b; to get different hyperbolas from the same
cone, i.e., the plane of intersection must be different.

21. Continued from the previous slide
This is a meaning of e for the hyperbola.
2 2 2 2
x y x y
It may be further noted that in the eqn. of an ellipse a a (1 e ) ,or a b 1
1
2 2 2 2 2
, where , e is supposed to be less than 1, i.e., b < a. If we make e > 1
2 2 2
b a (1 e )
, e becomes imaginary and we do not get a hyperbola in place of an ellipse, as b
2 2
becomes imaginary; not evenif we rewrite the same equation as . x y
1
2 2 2
a a (e 1)
On the other hand, if we make b > a in , we get only another ellipse with its
major and minor axes interchanged. 2 2
x y
1
The hyperbola shown in the figure of this article is represented by ; a b 2 2
where b is the length of the perpendicular from vertex of the cone onto the plane
of intersection , i.e., onto the plane of the hyperbola. But as it is the standard
eqn. of hyperbola, b is supposed to be less than a , and it is very much the semi-
minor axis, which is supposed to be in the plane of the hyperbola. Thus the
length of the perpendicular from vertex of the cone happens to be equal to the
semi-minor axis, the two being perpendicular to each other. This is as if the
minor axis has been rotated through /2 or having been multiplied by i = (-1)
, perhaps because b2 in the equation of the ellipse is replaced by - b2 in contrast
to the case of ellipse. Then e 1 b 1 tan which is always greater than 1.
2
2 2 2
sec
2
a

22. The general eqn. of 2nd degree in two variables represents a conic.
The General eqn. of 2nd degree ax2 +2hxy + by2 + 2gx +2fy +c = 0……….…eqn(16)
By a suitable transformation of co-ordinates , the xy-term may be made to vanish.
Suppose the axes are turned through an angle so that, x is replaced by
x cos -y sin and y is replaced by x sin + y cos ,so that (16) becomes
a(x cos - y sin )2 + 2h(x cos - y sin )( x sin + y cos )+ b(x sin
+ y cos )2+2g(x cos - y sin ) + 2f(x sin + y cos ) + c = 0.
The coefficient of 2xy term is h(cos2 -sin2 ) – (a – b) cos sin ,which is 0 if,
2h cos 2 = (a – b) sin 2 , or tan 2 = 2h/(a – b).
For any real value of h, a and b, can always be found, so that the eqn. can always
be got rid of the xy-term (second term).Even for a = b, cos 2 = 0 and = /4 if we
put a = b from the beginning. And thus can be written in the form
Ax2 +By2 + 2Gx +2Fy +C = 0…………………………………………………………….(17)
Of course c = C as the term does not involve the variables only whom we have
modified. Thus we can take (17) as general equation of second degree in two
variables without any loss of generality.
This equation can be written as follows by completing squares
……………………………………...(18)
2 2 2 2
G F G F
Ax By C K ( sa y )
2 2
A B A B
if A 0 and B 0.

23. The general eqn. of 2nd degree in two variables represents a conic.
If the origin is shifted to the point , eqn.(17) can be written as
G F
,
A B
, ..................................... (18)
2 2
x y
1
K K
A B
(to keep the number of symbols minimum, we write x and y instead of new
symbols, though x and y in (18) are different from x and y in (17)or simply transfer
the origin to )
G F
,
A B
The eqn. represents an ellipse , real if K/A and K/B both are positive, or
imaginary one , if K/A and K/B both are negative, their roots are imaginary.
This shows that a second degree eqn in two variables Ax2 +By2 + 2Gx +2Fy +C = 0
in which there is no xy-term shall be equation of an ellipse if A and B are of
2 2
same sign as that of . G F C 2 2
A B
Eqn.(18) represents a hyperbola if one of K/A and K/B is negative.
This shows that a second degree eqn in two variables Ax2 +By2 + 2Gx +2Fy +C = 0
in which there is no xy-term shall be equation of an hyperbola if A and B are of
opposite signs.

24. The general eqn. of 2nd degree in two variables represents a conic.
2
C F F
If A = B, this represents a circle , origin at and radius
,
2G 2 B G B
………………...(19)
K K
or
A B
and only a point , trivial case of circle if K = 0.
If one of A, B, is 0 , say A = 0 and B 0, from eqn.(18) we get,
By2 + 2Gx +2Fy +C = 0……………………………………………..…..(20)
Do not put A = 0 direct in that equation.
By completing the square, 2 2
F C F
By 2G x 0
B 2G 2 BG
Or, By2 +2Gx = 0 or, 2G
……………………………………..(21)
2
y x
B
which represents a parabola if the origin is shifted to
its branches towards negative side of the x-axis if G/A is positive and vice versa.
If G = 0 along with A = 0, from eqn.(17) we get,
In other words, a second degree eqn in two variables
Ax2 +By2 + 2Gx +2Fy +C = 0 in which there is no xy-term shall be
equation of a parabola, if A = 0 , G 0.
2
By2 + 2Fy + C = 0 or y F F B C ………………………………………….(22)
B
which represents two straight lines parallel to each other and parallel to x-axis. The

25. The general conic represents the following curves
under respective conditions.
Summary
What curve Under what condition
Ellipse 2
h ab
Parabola 2
h ab
Hyperbola
2
h ab
Circle a = b and h =0
Rectangular hyperbola a + b =0
Δ =0, where Δ =abc +2fgh – af2 – bg2 – ch2
Two st lines, real or imaginary
Δ =0 and
Two parallel st lines 2
h ab

26. A
Conic sections from different points of view
We have discussed conic sections as plane curves characterised by a
A. C
ratio called eccentricity, the ratio of focal distance to distance from D
B
directrix.
Ellipse and hyperbola are derived from circle and rectangular hyperbola
B.
by compression of one coordinate.
Conic sections are really plane sections of cone.
C.
A circle is a curve such that square of distance of any point on it from a
D. E
fixed point , center is constant. An ellipse is a curve such that sum of F
distances of any point on it from the two foci is constant and is equal to
major axis. parabola is a curve such that distance of any point on it from
the focus is equal to that from the directrix. Rectangular hyperbola is a
Conic section as projection of a circle
curve such that product of the distances of any point on it from two
mutually perpendicular straight lines is constant. Hyperbola is a curve
such that product of distances of any point on it from its asymptotes is
constant. Hyperbola is a curve such that difference of distances of any
point on it from two fixed points, foci is constant.
Conic sections are projections of circles. Take the parabola EBF in the
E.
figure for example. Join every point of it to the vertex of the cone A.
Each of the straight lines joining a point of the parabola to the vertex
passes through the circle BCD. In this way, there is one and only one
point on the circle for any point on the parabola and vice versa, i.e., the
parabola or the circle are projections of each other or equivalent to each
other. This is also a point of view as to what conic sections are.
Lastly we discussed how every second degree equation in two variable is
F.
a conic section and vice versa.
There are other points of views as well , e.g. a conic section is inverse of a
G.
circle, i.e. when we take k/r, θ instead of coordinates r and θ. Still there
are other points of view we would discuss later on.